philosophy of education; school administration, including organization, supervision, and management, observation of actual schoolwork under direction and criticism, and practice teaching. The latter should be obtained when possible under conditions similar to those of actual practice and is essential in the training of a teacher, tho less vital in the training of a secondary than in the training of an elementary teacher. I desire to call attention to Part I of the Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education which is devoted to "the education and training of secondary teachers," edited by Professor Manfred J. Holmes, secretary of the National Society, Normal, Illinois. This is a valuable monograph and should be in the hands of everyone interested in the training of high-school teachers. It treats the more important topics concerned in the education of secondary teachers in an able and interesting manner.

7. It seems to me that the time has come when we should demand of the new high-school teacher not only a college degree but also a professional diploma which will indicate that he has made a serious study of the important. problems upon which he is about to enter. This would in time prevent twothirds of the present failures in high-school teaching and bar from high-school instructors much of the "cultured aimlessness" that is now in the shape of individuals drifting thru our colleges without a purpose or a thought of the meaning and seriousness of life. When fewer teachers enter the schoolroom without professional training the normal schools and college departments of education will receive less criticism for the failures they do not cause and have had no opportunity to prevent.

8. Two thoughts should be made specially prominent in the academic requirements of the high-school teacher. First, he should have a broad general education, hence a Bachelor of Arts' rather than a Bachelor of Science' degree, unless the latter is made to cover an equally broad culture foundation. Second, he should be a specialist in the subjects he expects to teach, not a specialist in the narrow sense of having his knowledge confined to a single subject, but a specialist in the broader sense of being strong in one line while. familiar with and keenly appreciative of many others. In this academic training the University of Nebraska has long held that the student who is to receive the university teachers' certificate must show a much higher grade of scholarship (averaging above 80 per cent, on a scale of 100) and keener appreciation than he who is simply permitted to pass for a degree. On these points Dr. A. F. Nightingale, in the monograph above referred to, says:

I would make language, then, ancient, modern, foreign, native, the basic study for all who would become successful teachers. Upon these foundations laid deep and strong, I would build a superstructure, scientific in character, mathematical in correctness, historical in breadth; and upon this building poetical in its symmetry, beautiful in its proportions, richly plain and plainly perfect in all its inner furnishings, there should rise some magnificent turret, original in design and typical of a special genius, which should tell to all around its exact location and for what it is specifically adapted.

Given the above training in a suitable environment the student with apti

tude for teaching will make an excellent teacher and all others should be directed into other channels where they are more likely to succeed or to do less harm in misdirecting others.

X

GEORGE H. MARTIN, SECRETARY OF MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION

1. The absence of means for training teachers for public high schools is the most glaring anomaly in the American system of education. The reason for it is easier to find than the remedy. When the movement to provide for the training of teachers began in the first half of the last century there were but one or two public high schools. Boys learned their Latin and Greek and mathematics preparatory to college in endowed academies.

The reformers of the time had only the common or district schools in mind when they established normal schools. The objective point in all their arguments was the improvement of the "common" or "free" or "district" schools. The dedicatory addresses at the opening of the early normal schools were alike in declaring that an auspicious day had dawned for the common schools. Thus they became associated in the public mind with elementary education. alone. There was a tacit assumption that special training was needed only for the comparatively illiterate young persons who aspired no higher than to be teachers in the common schools. Thus a stigma of educational plebeanism attached to the normal schools from the start, and professional training itself came to be regarded as a means of making up natural deficiencies or as a short cut to a low-grade career. To be sure, all the arguments used by the advocates of normal schools and all the analogies from the other professions which they presented applied as well to the teaching in academies and colleges; but this seems to have been wholly overlooked so intent was everyone upon reforming the common schools.

While the normal schools were developing their work, the public high schools were taking the place of the academies and drawing their teachers from the same sources, that is, from the colleges. The teachers in these schools shared with their college instructors their contempt for normal schools and, what was far more serious, contempt for professional training. Not many years ago a professor in Yale College was asked, "What importance do the members of the Yale faculty attach to the science of education ?" "None, whatever!" was his prompt reply. And at about the same time the foremost college president asserted publicly that all the principles of education worth knowing could be learned by any intelligent man in twenty-four hours.

It is not surprising, therefore, to find teaching in the secondary schools which violates every axiom of sound pedagogy. Some twenty years ago in a report on the high schools of Massachusetts made to the board of education. by one of its agents, the writer after giving some amusing specimens of class

teaching said, "My observation leads me to conclude that untrained teachers are much alike whether they have been graduated from a college or only from a district school."

I think no unprejudiced observer can escape the conclusion that the falling out from the high schools during the first two years is due more largely to the preponderance of these young college women than to any other single cause. In the higher grades of the grammar schools from which these students have come to the high schools, they have been under the influence of strong men and women most of whom have learned the science of teaching either in normal schools or in the school of experience or more often in both. Going from skilled to unskilled teachers, the students fail to adjust themselves to the new environment and then comes mutual misunderstanding. The friction is attributed to every cause but the right one-to weak and coddling methods in the grammar schools, to superficial teaching, to defects in the high-school course of study, to social interests, to the craving to be out in the world. Were these causes real, their existence would only emphasize the need of better teaching in the early high-school years.

2. Turning to inquire what these young collegians need to fit them to teach, no one who has seen any considerable number of them at work but knows that what they need most and right away is knowledge of elementary psychology and of the simplest principles of pedagogy. This is what all persons need who are preparing to teach, and in this respect there is no difference. between teachers in elementary schools and teachers in high schools.

To acquire in the most simple and direct way knowledge of the mutual actions and reactions of the mind-any mind—and its environment, knowledge of the relations of the mind and body, knowledge of the way the mind acts in acquiring knowledge and shaping conduct under its own impulses and under natural conditions, and how its actions may be modified under the impulses of a teacher and under the artificial conditions of a school-to acquire this knowledge is the beginning of the special education of all teachers. College graduates, because of their longer training, should have greater power of concentrated and sustained thought and should be able to acquire this knowledge quicker than persons in the ordinary normal schools, but the essential thing is that it should not be clouded by metaphysics nor obscured by the complexities of scientific method.

With only so much knowledge as this, the young teacher beginning in a secondary school would be saved from many mistakes. What is more important for him he would know that to be a good scholar is not all that is required to become a good teacher—a bit of knowledge that not one secondary schoolteacher in a hundred had ever heard of, or read of, or dreamed of when he began to teach.

3. Because the process of development becomes more complex with increasing years, because multiplied and varied experiences, subjective and objective, need to be organized and utilized, the secondary-school teacher

needs to have his attention concentrated for a time upon the especial psychology of the high-school age. He needs to know how the function of the teacher changes with changes in the pupil, so that he may waste no time in false starts. On the school side there is needed some elementary knowledge of the principles of school organization and of school and class management.

On this common foundation for all teaching may be built a structure of professional training as broad and generous as circumstances make possible— a structure to which all previous college work may be made to contribute.

4. While the elementary knowledge thus briefly outlined is essential to the teacher's success, to stop with it would be disastrous. Unless a teacher in any department gets a broader view of the scope of his work than can be obtained by looking at his pupils simply as pupils and studying them with relation to their place and work in his classroom, he has no element of the masterworkman.

The most important lesson which his training can afford him is the distinction between education and schooling, between a man or a woman and a scholar. To come to discern the higher functions of the teacher and the course of study and the school in view of the larger life, is to reach a view-point necessary to the teacher equally for his own dignity and for his power to inspire his pupils. It is at this point that the secondary school should make its most distinct contribution to the public. Because the high-school age is peculiarly the age of ideals and of enthusiasms, peculiarly susceptible both to worldly and unworldly impressions, the views of life held by the teacher are of supreme importance, and the teacher's powers of insight and of influence need to reach the highest standard both in quality and in degree. It is an important part of the training of the secondary-school teacher to bring these facts vividly to his attention.

5. Another distinct line of work in the preparation of these teachers is study of the secondary curriculum. Assuming that these prospective teachers have acquired a working knowledge of the subjects which they will have to teach, they need to be taught how to fit them to the student.

They need to know the value of a subject for knowledge and for discipline and how to make it most effective for both. They need to know it as a whole and in its parts and to be able to distinguish between the essential and the nonessential, that is, they need to have a sense of proportion developed in judging the relation of different subjects and of the parts of one subject to each other.

They need to know how to use the different activities of the mind in mastering the subjects. And they should be taught how the same goal may be reached by different routes, but that there may be a choice of routes. All this may be summed up in one word, method.

6. The work thus far suggested is all elementary in its character. A part of it is identical and another part is parallel with that given in normal schools. Beyond this the work should develop on the philosophical and historical side.

Education as a function of society is a subject which should appeal to college graduates with great force. If they have become interested in sociological studies, this will prove one of the most fascinating; and, if they have not been drawn in this direction, it will serve as a most attractive introduction.

The chief advantage of this subject is that it is equally useful for cultural and for purely professional or vocational ends. As a part of the outfit of a man calling himself educated, it ranks by the side of the study of politics or religion or literature or science or the family.

It may be studied in accordance with the same scientific method as these other subjects, and it may have the same broadening effect. To a young person engaged in preparing himself by special study for a special calling, it is of the greatest value to learn how that calling is a part of a larger whole, to see that one who enters upon it is not narrowing himself but is in reality entering one of the great fields of human endeavor, that the problems at home are parts of larger problems to which in all time men have given their supreme efforts.

7. It is at once the misfortune and the shame of the profession of teaching that so few of its members have attempted to think beyond the petty problems of their own classrooms, having lost themselves in the maze of schemes and methods and devices. I once spent a whole day with a company of distinguished secondary-school teachers out for a pleasure excursion, who used all the time before dinner, at dinner, and after dinner in discussing, weighing, measuring, and anathematizing some recent changes in the Harvard entrance requirements. The study of which I am speaking is not the so-called history of education which forms a part of the curriculum of many normal schools and teachers' reading circles. That is too scrappy and disconnected to have any value either vocational or cultural. Nor is it the study of great teachers and educational reformers. That is instructive and inspiring to teachers in any grade of schools, but, in my judgment, would better form a part of the teacher's private reading than be introduced into a training-school curriculum.

8. The work in psychology, general and special, the work in secondaryschool method, and the study of school organization and management cannot be successfully conducted without adequate opportunities for observation and practice. Psychology abstracted from child-life and dealt with only as a subject can never be made to enter in any vital or vitalizing way into the mind of the student preparing to teach. Only as his psychological concepts reflect his own experiences and the experiences of children and youth whom he is studying will they be of any value to him in shaping his own teaching.

The student's observation should include children of all ages and in all grades of school at work and at play. Especially should it include the work of good secondary-school teachers. It should be directed equally to pupils and teachers that the observer may learn how a good teacher brings pupil and subject together and uses the subject to develop mental power. The student should be directed to observe the reactions between the personality of the