present when the lesson is presented. After the presentation of the lesson the instructor holds a conference of students for the purpose of criticism.

In 1904 the University of Missouri established the Teachers College High School which now enrolls about one hundred students. Nearly all the teaching is done by senior students of the Teachers College, who receive credit for their teaching the same as for any regular university subject. Students who are to receive the teacher's certificate must do practice teaching (from two to nine hours' credit) one semester. The practice work is under the direct supervision of the professor of theory and practice of teaching, who is also superintendent of the Teachers College High School, assisted by the heads of departments of the Teachers College. The high school is under the immediate direction of a principal, the girls being in charge of a lady assistant

The University of Ohio conducts no courses in observation but some instructors arrange for such work in the city high schools.

The University of Washington has no practice school but students who intend to teach are requested to do a semester's work in observation and practice in the Seattle public schools. One of the university courses which deals with secondary school curriculum requires students to devote one afternoon each week to observation in the city schools, under the direction of the professor of education. In connection with a course in supervision, students visit local schools to study the problems of organization and management.

The University of Chicago maintains a secondary school. The teachers are experts and students have an opportunity to study the workings of the school and the methods of instruction. The announcements of the university state that practice teaching is required in certain courses in mathematics; however, no information could be obtained as to where or how the work is done.

At the University of Colorado observation and practice teaching are carried on in the city schools and in the state preparatory school. The work in the city schools is in charge of the professor of education. The general direction of the observation and practice teaching is left to the head master of the preparatory school.

Observation and practice teaching at the University of Nebraska.

EXTRACTS FROM

The Professional Training of Teachers. Macmillan. G. W. A. Luckey, Professor of Education, University of Nebraska.

By an arrangement with the public-school authorities of Lincoln, the university students are given opportunity for observation and practice under direct supervision, covering both elementary and high-school grades. In order to obtain this privilege the student must have reached the rank of senior and be within one year of the requirements for the university teacher's certificate.

Students are required to take certain courses in education.

Partly for their convenience and partly on account of their strength, the students are divided into two classes, cadets and student teachers. The former give attention only to

observation of the regular schoolwork and to the assisting of the regular teacher in the classwork; the latter, in addition to the work of cadets, are called upon as substitutes, or supply teachers, to fill temporary vacancies. Cadets receive no pay, but student teachers, when supplying, receive pay at about one-half the usual salary. There are fifteen publicschool buildings in the city, to each of which may be assigned one or more cadets or student teachers, depending upon the size of the building and the number of students registering for practice-work. Students visit the building to which they are assigned at last twice a week, spending two hours on each visit. They report to the principal for duty and are sent by her to one of the rooms, where they make themselves useful by assisting the teacher in the seat and classwork of the pupils, in distributing material, etc. In this way they become familiar with the general plan of the schoolwork, with the names of most of the pupils; so that, when later they are called upon to supply temporarily the place of any teacher in the building to which they have been assigned, they feel at home, and the pupils look upon and respect them as regular employees or teachers.

When two or more students are assigned to the same building, they arrange to have their visits come at different hours. The position of student teacher calls for more responsibility than that of the cadet, since the former may be called upon at any time to supply in the building to which he has been assigned, tho the supply-work of any student teacher will probably not exceed ten days per year.

The city superintendent of schools is a university lecturer on school supervision and he has the practical direction of cadets and student teachers.

A limited number of advanced students who are carrying fewer hours of university work are employed as regular assistants and readers in the high school. They give daily service and receive pay for the same at the rate of twenty-five cents per hour.

At Columbia University two practice and observation schools are maintained. In one of these opportunity for practice teaching is given. The other charges a high rate of tuition and the work is in charge of expert teachers. In the school first mentioned all work is in charge of special teachers who supervise the work of the student teachers. The second school affords opportunity for observation.

The English department requires twenty-four hours of English as a prerequisite to admission to the training-course. Students who have never taught are required to teach two or three weeks. This work is carefully prepared for and carefully supervised. All students are required to make a study of the work in the Horace Mann School; to make accurate and detailed reports of what they have seen, and to participate in critical reports of what they have seen, and in critical discussions on this work. The great need of the department is more time for practice. (Professor Baker thinks that, instead of one or two weeks, at least a month of such teachng should be required of each inexperienced teacher.)

The department of mathematics has a two-hour course in observation and practice. About one-sixth of the time is allotted to observing the teaching in certain classes, and five hours to general observation in the Horace Mann School. The rest of the time is devoted to teaching. All work is under the general control of the head of the department, who visits the classes as opportunity permits, and it is under the immediate supervision of an adviser of experience who meets daily each student who is observing or practicing.

The department of Latin follows two methods in the training of teachers. A certain amount of time, equivalent to about six weeks, one period per day, is devoted to observation in the various classes under the guidance of the teachers; they observe and report on the work that is done, and sometimes lay out the plans of lessons for the following day, which they can criticize in the light of the actual lesson. Finally, the students are given a certain amount of actual teaching. So far each student has been able to have but one or two weeks of actual practice in teaching. In the department of geology no attempt at practice teaching is made.

Students who expect to teach physiography in secondary schools do observation work. They also assist instructors in preparing laboratory materials and devising laboratory exercises and in an instance to individuals in group laboratory work.

At the University of Illinois, the Academy (situated upon the campus) and the city schools of Champaign and Urbana are utilized for observation and practice purposes. A two-hour course in observation is open to juniors and a three-hour course in practice is open to seniors. In the former, students are assigned particular courses, largely in the academy which they visit regularly for from four to six weeks, carefully noting the work done and having weekly conferences with the regular instructor and a member of the department of education of the university who is in charge of the practice-work. Students in the practice course teach regularly for some weeks a class assigned them in some one of the schools.

CERTIFICATES

A number of institutions offer a teacher's certificate upon the completion of a certain number of hours' work in specified departments. The University of Michigan appears to have been the leader in this movement and nearly all the courses leading to this type of diploma are similar to the requirements for the teacher's diploma of the University of Michigan.

In general, certificates are based upon three sets of requirements, viz.:

a) Special knowledge in the subject or group of subjects the candidate wishes to teach. b) Professional knowledge. This includes courses in pedagogy and education, and usually psychology and logic.

c) General knowledge of science, mathematics, English, foreign languages, history, etc. This requirement is intended to secure as broad culture as possible.

These three groups of requirements will probably cover the demands made by all the institutions which grant such certificates of qualification to teachers in secondary schools. The courses differ in the amount of work required in the different groups. In several states the university certificate is honored as a teaching certificate and, after the holder has taught a certain length of time, the state superintendent of public instruction issues a permanent certificate to teach. Below are given extracts from the regulations of several universities which grant diplomas. No attempt is made to study the requirements of the many small colleges which offer certificates. Their

certificates are usually given to undergraduates, while the certificates here studied are issued at graduation or to graduate students.

University of Wisconsin: Special, major subject; general, same as for regular course leading to degree; professional, ten hours. A law enacted by the legislature of 1901 states: “A diploma granted upon the completion of a regular collegiate course of the University of Wisconsin, if accompanied by a certificate that the bearer has completed the course of pedagogical instruction prescribed by the university for all persons who intend to teach upon presentation to the state superintendent shall entitle the holder to receive from that officer a certificate which shall authorize him to teach in any public school for one year."

Section 458 b and d of the Revised Statutes provides that after one year of successful teaching the diploma of a graduate of the university may be countersigned by the state superintendent, and that when so countersigned the diploma shall have the force and effect given by law to the unlimited state certificate, and may be honored as a teaching certificate. University of Nebraska: Special, twenty hours (varies); general, qualifications for B.S. or B.A. degree; professional, eighteen hours.

The university teacher's certificate is granted to graduates of the university who have satisfactorily completed the work outlined below and have shown marked proficiency therein.

"The professional work required for the teacher's certificate may be elected by regular students above sophomore standing, by experienced teachers, and by unclassified students who satisfy the heads of departments that they are qualified to pursue the work.

"Under section ten of the school law of Nebraska, as amended in 1897, the state superintendent of public instruction is authorized to grant permanent state teachers' certificates after three years' successful experience in teaching. The certificates are also recognized by the authorities in a number of other states as sufficient evidence upon which to grant teachers' licenses without examination." They be may honored as a teaching certificate.

University of Missouri: Special, same as for major subject; general, regular requirement for graduation; professional, twenty-four hours. Gives right to teach. Life-certificate to teach in high schools. Same general requirements as for the degree of Bachelor of Science. As part of the twenty-four hours in education, the following courses must be included: 1b, or 2, 5a, 19a or 196, and at least one special course on the teaching of some subject of high-school instruction. As part of the academic work, the candidate must elect at least eighteen hours in each subject which he expects to teach.

University of Illinois: Special, major subject; general, graduation; professional, fourteen hours. Does not give right to teach.

The School of Education grants no degree, power to recommend such residing in the particular college in which the student is registered. It has, however, the power to recommend the granting of a special certificate, the university certificate of qualification to teach. Upon this will be stated the major or majors of the recipient, whether definite subjects or instruction, special subjects for supervision or general supervision. All candidates for the teacher's certificate must take the following courses: elementary psychology (psychology 1 or 2, 3 hours); principles of education (education 1, 5 hours); high-school organization and administration (education 6, 3 hours), and three hours of work selected from the offerings of the department of philosophy.

University of California: Special, twenty hours; general, graduation, four groups; professional, twelve hours.

Special knowledge, twenty units, normally, in the subject or group of closely allied subjects that the candidate expects to teach, the ultimate decision as to the candidate's proficiency resting with the heads of the departments concerned. (In some departments more than twenty units are necessary.)

General knowledge, courses sufficient to represent (with the inclusion of special studies) four groups from the following list: Natural sciences, mathematics, English, foreign languages, history, philosophy. This requirement is intended to secure, so far as is possible, breadth of culture and sympathy with the various lines of high-school work.

For teacher's certificate the requirements are the same as for group elective, except that in the fifteen units of advanced courses candidates must include 11a, either 14c or one part of 23, and one other course from the list 11 to 14. If, however, they are combining advanced studies in economics, politics, history, or jurisprudence with English for their groups, they may sutstitute for this requirement of three philological courses, any one course from 110 to 14e and two in debating (7a to 7c). Courses 9, 10, 11 to 14, 17, 18, 21, 23, and the graduate courses are especially adapted to the needs of students who desire to teach.

Beginning with December, 1905, a final examination will be required of candidates for the teacher's certificate in English. The emphasis will be laid, not so much on detailed information as (a) on grasp of the subject of English in its twofold aspect—the language and literature, and (b) on scholarly methods and workmanship. The candidates will be expected to satisfy the department of English that they have: I. A scholarly acquaintance with each of the three main periods of the English language and with the history of the development to the present time; 2. Familiarity, obtained at first hand, with the chief masterpieces of English literature, with the history of its development, and with the principles and methods of historical study; 3. Satisfactory special knowledge of one of the greater authors or of one of the main literary movements; 4. Training in the principles and methods of poetry and prose requisite to the advanced study of literature; 5. Skill in organizing and presenting thought, orally and in writing. Candidates are warned against supposing that the purpose of the examination can be attained by mere accumulation of courses in English. It will always be presupposed, however, that candidates presenting themselves for examination have an equivalent of twenty-seven units of English to their credit.

Teachers' certificates. The department will, in general, recommend, as qualified to teach mathematics in high schools, only such graduates as have passed with credit in courses 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 120, 12b, 13, 18. It is also of great importance that the prospective teacher of mathematics should be well informed on the relation of mathematics to other sciences, and he should to that end devote a considerable portion of his time to at least one of the closely related sciences. The department further reserves the right to exact a practical test of the candidate's ability to present a clear and interesting exposition of subjects taught in the high schools. For those preparing to become teachers and investigators, the individual aims of the student will determine, after the fundamental courses have been taken, what advanced courses should be selected. The minimum for the teachers' recommendation is I (lectures only), 2, 3, either 4, 5, and 7 and 17.

Students who desire the teacher's certificate should do not less than eighteen units of group elective work in German, including courses 6a, 6b, 7a, 12, 18a, and 186. The recommendation for the certificate is not, however, given in course, but only for high scholarship and general proficiency in German, as judged by the department. Applicants for this certificate will be required to take, in addition to the elementary courses, at least ten hours of junior and eight hours of senior work, but the formal compliance with this requirement does not necessarily entitle the applicant to the certificate; and in any case a fair speaking knowledge will be a requisite. Twenty-four units of physics will be required for the teacher's recommendation. Applicants for the recommendation in physics, in making up this number of units, must include in their work the equivalent of courses 1 and 3, with either course 4 or 2a. See statements under these headings, and under course 18. In all cases proposed combinations of courses should be submitted for approval to the professor of physics. The requirements for recommendation by the department are (a) 12 units of advanced work in Latin; (b) course 4; (c) Greek, course A (or its equivalent), but until May, 1907, a reading knowledge of French may be substituted; (d) a reading knowledge