eastern coast in 1000. John Cabot (q.v.) in 1497 reached the shores of the New World in the neighborhood of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is upon this voyage that England subsequently based her claim, in part, to the whole of North America. For the most part, however, the territory included within the present Dominion, excluding the former Northwest Territories and the Hudson Bay country, was explored and first settled by the French. Basque and Breton fishermen began to visit the cod-banks of Newfoundland as early as 1504; Denis of Honfleur and Aubert of Dieppe explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in 1506 and 1508, respectively; the Baron de Léry made an unsuccessful attempt to settle Sable Island in 1518; and in 1524 Verazzano, under the direction of Francis I., sailed along the coast of North America from the thirty-fourth to the fiftieth parallel of north latitude. In 1534 Jacques Cartier (q.v.) en tered the Saint Lawrence and at Gaspé took formal possession of the country in the name of the King of France; and on a second voyage, in 1535-36, he ascended the river as far as Hochelaga (Montreal), wintered at Stadaconé (Quebec), and, while passing up the stream, entered the present harbor of Sainte-Geneviève, and gave it the name Saint Lawrence, which was afterwards extended to the gulf and the river. Jean François de la Roque, Sieur de Roberval (q.v.), with the assistance of Cartier, made an abortive attempt to establish a colony at Cape Rouge in 1541-43. The Marquis de la Roche received a commission from the King as lieutenant-general of Canada, and in 1598, having bargained to colonize New France, established a short-lived settlement on Sable Island; and in the following year Pontgravé and Chauvin established an equally short-lived settlement at the mouth of the Saguenay. In 1603 Champlain made the first of his voyages to Canada, and his name is inseparably connected with the history of New France from that date until the time of his death, in 1635. (See CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE.) In 1604 he assisted Pierre du Guast, Sieur de Monts, in bringing out a colony which first settled on Dochet Island, in the Saint Croix, and in the following year was moved to the site of the present Annapolis in Acadia or Nova Scotia (q.v.). This colony, however, was broken up temporarily by the English under Samuel Argall, in 1613, and the first permanent settlement in Canada was made at Quebec in 1608 by Champlain, who within the next few years discovered lakes Champlain (1609), Huron (1615), and Erie (1615), established a temporary settlement at Montreal (1611), and by taking part with the Hurons and Algonquins, the original inhabitants of Canada, against the Five Nations, in 1609 and 1615, committed France to a policy which was to be of the greatest significance in the history of New France, arousing, as it did, the enmity of the powerful Iroquois, who united first with the Dutch and then with the English, and frequently thwarted the French in their schemes of expansion and conquest. In addition to making numerous inroads upon the settlements of the French themselves, they in time virtually annihilated the Hurons, who had allied them selves to France. "They ruined," says Parkman, "the trade which was the life-blood of New France; they stopped the current of her arteries

and made all her early years a misery and a terror." The French governors repeatedly attempted to overcome the Confederacy, and at times seemed on the point of meeting with success; but in spite of severe reverses and of the occasional destruction of their towns, the Iroquois continued to stand as a barrier to French encroachments and as a protection to the English colonists, though, largely as a result of the vigorous policy of Frontenac (q.v.), the ablest of the French governors after Champlain, their aggressions and inroads virtually ceased in the beginning of the Eighteenth Century. In 1625 several Jesuits arrived at Quebec, and for almost half a century thereafter the order had a preponderating influence over secular as well as religious affairs, insomuch that during the early period of its history New France was in many respects essentially a mission. The affairs of the colony having been grossly mismanaged in the first two decades, Richelieu, in 1627, organized the Company of New France, better known as the 'Company of the Hundred Associates'—a corporation which, under the quasi-supervision of the Crown, virtually ruled the whole of New France until 1663, besides exercising a monopoly over the immensely valuable fur trade. In 1642 Montreal was permanently founded by a company of religious enthusiasts headed by the Sieur de Maisonneuve, and in 1659 Laval-Montmorency (q.v.), the titular bishop, by papal appointment, of Petræa in Arabia, was placed at the head of the Catholic Church in New France, in which capacity he had a powerful influence for many years over civil as well as ecclesiastical affairs.

In 1663 Louis XIV. dissolved the Company of New France and placed Canada under the direct control of the Crown, though for ten years thereafter (1664-74) a new corporation, the Company of the West,' exercised a virtual monopoly over the trade of the colony. Under the royal Government, which lasted until 1760, the affairs of New France were administered by a Governor, an Intendant, and a Superior Council, all appointed by the Crown, the Governor being empowered to command the troops, conduct negotiations with foreign colonies and Indian tribes, and supervise all matters of administrative routine; the Intendant to preside at the Council, exercise independent legislative and judicial power, and supervise the expenditure of all public moneys, besides acting virtually as a spy on the Governor; and the Supreme Council, composed of the Governor, the Intendant, the Bishop, and five, later seven, and still later thirteen, councilors, to issue decrees for the government of the colony in civil and fiscal affairs, and to sit in judgment on various civil and criminal causes. The distinctive features of the government of Canada throughout the French régime were absolutism and paternalism, the individual settler being robbed of all initiative and forced to look for everything to the general Government, which habitually intervened in the most trivial affairs of every-day life. During the period of royal control, the celebrated feudal system of Canada, first established by Richelieu, and based, with important modifications, upon the system which had obtained in ancient France, took definite form. Large grants, called seignories, were made to men of rank or prominence, known as seigneurs, who held, in many cases directly

from the Crown, by the 'tenure of faith and homage,' and who, in turn, made smaller grants to the habitants or censitaires, whose tenure rested upon their payment of annual rentals in money or produce, and in some cases upon their rendering to their over-lords certain feudal services, such, for instance, as the corvée. The settlements, called côtes, were almost uniformly made along streams, the houses being built in long lines, instead of being arranged around a common centre, as was the case in many of the New England villages-each habitant receiving a narrow strip of land, fronting on a river or creek and extending for a considerable distance to the rear. The system was not interfered with at the time of the English conquest in 1760, and survived in Lower Canada (Quebec) until 1854, when it was finally abolished.

With the English Colonists to the south the inhabitants of New France came into conflict during the last part of the Seventeenth Century. Such events as the destruction of the French settlement at Port Royal by Argall in 1613, or the capture and occupation of Quebec by David Kirke in 1629-32 may be regarded as sporadic; but with the outbreak of the first of the so-called French and Indian wars in 1689, the long contest between the French and English for supremacy in North America was initiated. (See KING WILLIAM'S WAR; QUEEN ANNE'S WAR; KING GEORGE'S WAR; FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.) Of these wars, the first two especially, 1689-97 and 1702-13, may be differentiated from the last as being essentially the fighting out of European quarrels on American soil. On the part of the French, the conflict took the form of sudden raids, with the help of their Indian allies, on the frontier settlements of New York and New England. Though no important victory was gained on either side, the English nevertheless acquired by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) Acadia, Newfoundland, and the Hudson Bay Territory. Thirtyfive years of peace followed, marked by rapid development both among the French and the English. The tide of English colonization, breaking through the passes of the Alleghanies, was checked by the French, who had made themselves masters of the great rivers of the west. The war which broke out in 1754 was essentially American, and though it later merged into the greater struggle of the Seven Years' War, the stake between England and France was the mastery in America. In the French and Indian War, Canada experienced both the advantages and disadvantages of the absolute system of government under which it lived. Against the armies of Great Britain, weakened by incapacity on the part of their commanders and constant friction between British officers and the Colonials, it presented a force of trained fighters, under officers, for the most part, acquainted with the nature of the country, and acting all under the direction of one supreme will. This would account for the ill success of the English during the first part of the war. When it came, however, to a test of endurance between the combatants, Canada, with its sparse population of fur traders and forest rangers, could never hope to hold out against the English Colonists, if, as was the fact, it was forced to depend for help on distant France, with the British holding the mastery of the seas. The capture of Quebec by Wolfe in September, 1759, practically ended the war. By the Treaty of Paris (q.v.) in 1763,

VOL. IV.-9.

Canada, together with all the territory between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi River, claimed by France, was ceded to Great Britain. Canada was under a military government from 1760 to 1764, and under a sort of provisional government, organized in pursuance of a proclamation by George III., from 1764 to 1774, when the British Parliament passed an important measure known as The Quebec Act' (q.v.), which extended the province to the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, provided that Roman Catholics should not be interfered with in their religion, intrusted the administration of affairs to a Governor and a Legislative Council appointed by the Crown, and formally recognized the old civil laws and civil institutions of French Canada, though the English criminal laws were to be in force throughout the province. During the American Revolution, the Continental Congress attempted to secure the active alliance of Canada, and to that end sent a commission, made up of Franklin, Chase, Charles Carroll, and John Carroll, to Quebec; but the province remained loyal throughout, and at the close of the war its population was augmented by the immigration from the United States of between 30,000 and 40,000 Loyalists, whose advent, says the Canadian historian Bourinot, "was the saving of British interests in the great region which England still happily retained in North America." It was these immigrants who founded New Brunswick and Upper Canada (Ontario), and their descendants have continued to the present day to constitute perhaps the most important and influential element in the population of

Canada.

By the treaty of 1783, the area of Canada, as established by the Quebec Act, was reduced by the formal relinquishment to the United States of the territory now constituting the States of Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and in 1791 the province was divided by the so-called 'Constitutional Act' into two sections, 'Upper Canada' and 'Lower Canada,' the former of which, then having a population of about 20,000, was inhabited almost entirely by men of English descent, and the latter, then having a population of about 125,000, mostly by men of French descent. Each section was to have a Legislative Council, to be appointed by the King, for life; an assembly, to be chosen by a popular vote; and a Governor and Executive Council, to be appointed by the King; while French institutions were for the most part to obtain in the one and English institutions in the other. The so-called 'Maritime Provinces'-New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward Island-were placed under administrations very similar to that of Upper Canada. In Lower Canada a party of discontent almost immediately arose, and until the reorganization of the Government, in 1841, there was almost continual friction between the Popular Assembly on the one side, representing the French element, and the Governor and Legislative Council on the other, representing almost exclusively the English element. In spite of the unifying influence of the War of 1812 with the United States (see UNITED STATES, History), in which men of all races throughout Canada participated, this racial antagonism became more and more accentuated, until, in

1837, a certain element of the French population, under the leadership of Louis J. Papineau (q.v.), angered by the intervention of the British Government, rose in revolt against the British authority, but were quickly suppressed.

Meanwhile in Upper Canada much discontent was caused by the political dominance of a small class, descended from the Loyalists, and united, it was charged, under an alleged "family compact" for the purpose of monopolizing the public offices. The popular dissatisfaction with the prevailing state of affairs was greatly increased by religious antagonisms and by the exposure of apparent frauds in the disposition of public lands. In 1837, also, the more radical of the reformers, doubtless encouraged by the outbreak in Lower Canada, organized a 'rebellion,' under the leadership of William L. Mackenzie (q.v.), but were defeated and driven out of the province before the close of the following year. Meanwhile Lord Durham had been sent out from England as Governor-General and high commissioner "for the determining of certain important questions depending in the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, respecting the form and future government of the said provinces," and, largely as a result of the famous report made by him in 1839, the two provinces were reunited, in 1841, by an act of Parliament, which provided for a Governor, to be appointed by the Crown, a Legislative Council, also to be appointed (for life) by the Crown; a Legislative Assembly, to which Upper and Lower Canada were to send an equal number of representatives, to be elected by popular vote; and an Executive Council, or Cabinet, to be chosen by the Governor from the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. The Maritime Provinces retained their separate governments.

After the union of Upper and Lower Canada, the advantages of a Federal union of all the provinces became more and more apparent, especially since, by reason of the plan of equal representation, and the unequal growth of the two united provinces, a reorganization of some kind was rendered imperative. In 1864 a convention of delegates representing the various provinces was held at Quebec for the purpose of considering the advisability of union, and under the leadership of Sir John Macdonald (q.v.) formally adopted a set of resolutions, which served as the basis for the Act of Union passed by the British Parliament, February, 1867. Under this act Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were formally united as the Dominion of Canada, which subsequently-in 1871 and 1873, respectively-received the accession of British Columbia and Prince Edward Island. Newfoundland, however, refused to enter the union, and still continues to hold herself aloof. The vast territory which since 1670 had been under the control of the Hudson Bay Company, was acquired by the Dominion in 1869-an event which provoked an uprising, along the Red River, of the half-breeds under Louis Riel (q.v), and in 1870 this territory was subdivided into Manitoba, which was immediately admitted into the Dominion on equal terms with the other provinces, and the Northwest Territories, out of which districts were subsequently created as follows: Keewatin, in 1876; Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Athabasca, in 1882; and Ungava, Mackenzie, and Franklin in 1895. There were Fenian disturbances in 1866 and 1870-71.

A second outbreak of the half-breeds and Indians under Riel occurred in 1885, which year was marked also by the completion of the Canadian Pacific railway. From the first year of the Dominion till 1896, with the exception of the years 1873-78, the Conservative party was in power, until 1891 under the leadership of Sir John Macdonald. In 1896 the Liberals under Sir Wilfrid Laurier carried the country and their strength was increased in the general elections of 1900 and 1904. The period of Liberal ascendency has been one of remarkable economic development and a parallel growth in national self-confidence which in one form has manifested itself in the changed attitude towards the question of reciprocity with the United States, which formerly was of great interest to the country and is now a matter of indifference. An extensive immigration (largely from the western United States) and active railway construction opened up the wheat regions of the northwest territories out of which were formed in 1905 the new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan (qq.v.). In September, 1905, the British garrison at Halifax was replaced by Canadian forces and in the summer of 1906 the evacuation of Esquimault left the Dominion free from the presence of British troops. The governors-general of the Dominion have been Lord Monck, 1867-68; Lord Lisgar, 1868-72; Earl of Dufferin, 1872-78; Marquis of Lorne, 1878-83; Marquis of Lansdowne, 1883-88; Lord Stanley of Preston (Earl of Derby), 188893; Earl of Aberdeen, 1893-98; Earl of Minto, 1898-1904; Earl Grey, 1904.

The boundary line between Canada and the United States, which was determined with considerable vagueness by the treaty of 1783, has formed the subject of much controversy between the United States and Great Britain, and was not finally settled for the northeast until 1842, and for the northwest until 1846. The question of the Alaskan boundary was rendered acute by the discovery of gold in the Yukon region. It was settled by an international commission in 1903 on terms that aroused keen dissatisfaction in Canada. (See ALASKA.) The question of the right of the Americans to fish in Canadian waters has also been the subject of considerable controversy between the two governments (see SEALING), as has also the right of the Canadians to participate in the seal fisheries in Bering Sea (see BERING SEA CONTROVERSY).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a bibliography of works on Canadian history, consult: Fairbault, Catalogue d'ouvrages sur l'histoire de l'Amérique et en particulier sur celle du Canada (Quebec, 1837); Wrong, Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada (Toronto, 1897-); and Larned (ed.), The Literature of American History (Boston, 1902); For the French régime, consult: Charlevoix, Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle France (3 vols., Paris, 1744; English translation, 6 vols., New York, 1866-72); Thwaites (ed.), Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (73 vols., Cleveland, 1896-1901); Faillon, Histoire de la colonie française en Canada (3 vols., Montreal, 1865-66); Miles. History of Canada Under the French Régime (Montreal, 1881); Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac (Boston, 1894); and especially Parkman's works, The Pioneers of France in the New World (Boston, 1865); The Jesuits in North America (Boston, 1867); La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West (Bos

ton, 1869); The Old Régime in Canada (Boston, 1874); Frontenac and New France Under Louis XIV. (Boston, 1877); A Half Century of Conflict (Boston, 1892); Montcalm and Wolfe (Boston, 1884); and Casgrain, Wolfe and Montcalm (Toronto, 1905); Wood, A Fight for Canada (Boston, 1906). For the period since 1760, see: Bourinot, Canada Under British Rule (Cambridge, 1901); Pope, Memoirs of John Alexander Macdonald (2 vols., London, 1894); Lindsey, Life and Times of William Lyon Mackenzie (Toronto, 1862); Bibaud, Histoire du Canada sous la domination Anglaise (3 vols., Montreal, 1837-78); Dent, Story of the Upper Canadian Rebellion (2 vols., Toronto, 1885), and The Last Forty Years: Canada since the Union of 1841 (2 vols., Toronto, 1881); Durham, Report on the Affairs of British North America (London, 1838: republished, London, 1901); and Read, The Canadian Rebellion of 1837 (Toronto, 1896); MacBeth, The Making of the Canadian West (Toronto, 1905). The best comprehensive histories are Kingsford, History of Canada (10 vols., Toronto, 1887-98); Garneau, Histoire du Canada (4 vols., Quebec, 1845-52; English translation, 2 vols., Montreal, 1860); Bryce, Short History of the Canadian People (London, 1887); Greswell, Geography of the Dominion of Canada (London, 1891); Parkin,

The Great Dominion (London, 1895); British America, British Empire Series (London, 1900); Lucas, A Historical Geography of the British Colonies, Vol. V. (Oxford, 1901); The Dominion of Canada, prepared by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (London, 1897); Annual Reports of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada (Ottawa, 1872, et seq.); Willmott, Mineral Wealth of Canada (London, 1898); Joncas, Fisheries of Canada (London, 1885); Adam, The Canadian Northwest: Its History and Its Troubles (Toronto, 1885); Dawson, Fifty Years' Work in Canada (London, 1901); Wil lison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party (London, 1903); Bradshaw, Self-Government in Canada (ib., 1903); Montagu and Herbert, Canada and the Empire (ib., 1904); Fraser, Canada as It Is ( New York, 1905); Cockburn, Political Annals of Canada (Toronto, 1905); Fountain, The Great Northwest and the Great Lake Region of North America (London, 1904).

CANADA BALSAM, or CANADA TURPENTINE. A kind of turpentine obtained from the Balm of Gilead fir (Abies or Picea balsamea), a native of Canada and the northern parts of the United States. It is a greenish-yellow, transparent liquid, having an agreeable odor, resembling that of turpentine, and a bitterish, acrid taste. When freshly exuded from the tree, it has the consistency of thin honey; on exposure to the air, however, it gradually dries up, forming a solid, transparent mass. Canada balsam is an oleoresin, consisting of 20 to 30 per cent. of a volatile oil, and 70 to 80 per cent. of a solid, composed mainly of two varieties of resin. It is the finest kind of turpentine obtained from any of the coniferæ, and was formerly employed for medicinal purposes, particularly as a stimulant for the cure of mucous discharges, and as a detergent application to ulcers. It is now used for a variety of purposes in the arts-as an ingredient in varnishes, in mounting objects for the microscope, in photography, and by opticians as a cement, particularly for connecting the parts of

CANADA SNAKEROOT. See ASARABACCA. CANADA THISTLE. See THISTLE. CANADIAN LITERATURE. A classification under which is grouped the large company of writers, both French and English, who are connected with the Canadas by birth or by resibut has been adopted for the sake of convendence. The expression is open to some objection, ience. French Canada, comprising mainly the Province of Quebec, long severed from France, has developed an interesting phase of French far as her literature is concerned, mainly the literature, and English Canada, comprising, so Maritime Provinces and Ontario, has her own traditions and history.

In 1639 an

the French, who established their largest colFrench Canada.-Canada was first settled by onies in the valley of the Saint Lawrence. Quebec early became the centre of some culture. The Jesuit college founded there in 1635 anUrsuline convent was also opened, and later in ticipated Harvard by one year. the century Laval, the famous Bishop of Quebec, established his seminaries, which have since developed into the great Roman Catholic university. The first books, written by explorers and Roman Catholic missionaries, deal with discovery, tradition, and history. Champlain (q.v.), the founder of Quebec (1608), published description of his first voyage, 1599-1601. His many admirable narratives, beginning with a works, frequently issued in Paris during the Seventeenth Century, have been carefully edited by Laverdière (6 vols., Quebec, 1870). Lescarbot (q.v.), who bore a part in the settlement at Acadia (Nova Scotia), published the interesting Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1609), to which was added a collection of poems called Les muses de la Nouvelle France. Other works produced under the French régime are: Gabriel Sagard's Grand voyage (Paris, 1632); Pierre Boucher's Mœurs et productions de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1864); the narratives of missionary adventure known as the Relations des Jésuites, edited, with English translation, by R. G. Thwaites (71 vols., Cleveland, Ohio, 1896-1901); La Potherie's Histoire de l'Amérique Septentrionale depuis 1534 jusqu'à 1701 (4 vols., Paris, 1722); the Jesuit Lafitau's Mœurs des sauvages amériquains (Paris, 1724); and Le Clercq's Etablissement of la foy (2 vols., Paris, 1691; English translation by J. G. Shea, New York, 1881). The line of these early writers closes with Charlevoix (q.v.), a Jesuit traveler, whose Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle France (3 vols., Paris, 1744; English translation by J. G. Shea, 6 vols., New York, 1866-72) is a work of great merit. Taken altogether, the books composed by priests and officials form a body of history unequaled in interest and style by anything

produced elsewhere in America during the same period. The peasantry, too, brought with them from Brittany and Normandy many popular songs which in course of time became imbued with the scenery and spirit of the new land. Orally transmitted from generation to generation, they were written down at a later period. A collection of these popular songs was edited, with music, by Ernest Gagnon (Quebec, 1865), and a translation was made by William McLennan under the title Songs of Old Canada (Montreal, 1886). Of them, one of the choicest is the love song, with interlocked stanzas, beginning, "A la claire fontaine."

By the Treaty of Paris (1763) Canada passed into the hands of the English. Then followed a period of strife and bickering which did not close until 1867, when the provinces were united under the name of the Dominion of Canada. Awakened by the civilization of her conquerors, French Canada, which still holds to her own language, produced her first native-born writers. Among them were several historians of their country. Michel Bibaud was the earliest, with the Histoire du Canada sous la domination française (Montreal, 1837), and the Histoire du Canada sous la domination anglaise (Montreal, 1844). In 1845 François Xavier Garneau published the first volume of his Histoire du Canada, from the discovery to his own time. This great work, completed in 1852, is regarded by the French as the standard authority on their history. Other admirable histories have been written by J. B. A. Ferland, a priest and professor of Laval University; the Abbé Faillon, a Sulpician priest, born in France, but long a resident of Canada; Louis Turcotte, who was connected with the legislative library of Quebec; Benjamin Sulte (q.v.), a prolific contributor to the periodical press and learned societies; the Abbé Casgrain, who has given much attention to the time of Montcalm and Lévis, and whose Pélerinage au pays d'Evangeline was crowned by the French Academy in 1888; and the Abbé Tanguay, sometime professor of archæology in Laval University, and author of the Dictionnaire généalogique des familles canadiennes, a work of immense research.

French Canada has her own newspapers and periodicals, which have made an audience for the essay, the sketch, and the novel. Faucher de Saint-Maurice (q.v.), a journalist, who served in Mexico under Maximilian, wrote De Quebec à Mexico; Les Provinces Maritimes; and many other volumes of description. Sir James MacPherson LeMoine is the author of a large number of legendary, historical, and critical sketches both in French and in English, as L'ornithologie du Canada (1861); The Chronicles of the Saint Lawrence (1879); and Picturesque Quebec (1882). Arthur Buies, who has edited several journals, began in 1871 the publication of his popular Chroniques, which extended to several volumes. He has also written many other pieces of delightful description, as Le Saguenay et la vallée du Lac Saint Jean (1880). L. O. David, who opposed the union of the Canadas, is regarded as one of the most brilliant of recent writers. His Patriotes de 1837-38 (1884) and Les deux Papineau (1896) are a defense of the rebellion of the French Canadians in 1837. In Le clergé canadien (1896) he vigorously attacked the Roman Catholic clergy for meddling in politics. Besides

these works, he is author of Biographies et por traits (1876) and Mes contemporains (1894). Among other essayists schooled in journalism are Alfred Duclos de Celles and Narcisse Eutrope Dionne. The former has written much on social and political questions, and his EtatsUnis: Origine, institutions, développements (1896) won the prize of the French Academy of Political and Moral Sciences. The latter is author of Jacques Cartier (1889); Samuel Champlain (1891 et seq.); and other historical sketches, written in a finished style. For the historical romance, Canada possesses richer material than the United States; but no Cooper has yet appeared among either the French or the English population. Still, there have been some noteworthy attempts at historical fiction. A pioneer work was Philippe de Gaspé's Les anciens Canadiens (1863), which was translated into English. De Gaspé was followed by Joseph Marmette, who wrote four historical romances-François de Bienville (1870); L'intendant Bigot (1872); Le chevalier de Mornac (1873); and La fiancée du rebelle (1875). first in the list passed through several editions, and may be taken as one of the best specimens of historical romance yet produced by French Canada. Among other novelists who have met with a measure of success are P. J. O. Chauveau and L. P. LeMay, the latter better known as a poet.

The

The French Canadians, though they have cultivated history, the descriptive sketch, and the novel, excel in their verse. We have already mentioned the popular ballads which their ancestors brought over seas from old France. Recent French-Canadian verse, though lacking in depth, is graceful and rhythmical. The chief poet is Louis Honoré Fréchette (q.v.), whose Fleurs boréales and Les oiseaux de neige were crowned by the French Academy in 1880. His finest poem is on the discovery of the Mississippi. Next to him is ranked Octave Crémazie, who passed his last years in France. His poems, which were contributed to various Canadian journals, were collected and published, with an introduction by the Abbé Casgrain, in Montreal, in 1882. They include a beautiful elegy on Les morts, and a stirring lyric on Le drapeau de Carillon, recalling the victories of Montcalm and Lévis. Léon Pamphile LeMay, already mentioned for his stories of Canadian life, gained fame far beyond his country for a translation (1870) of Longfellow's "Evangeline." He has also published several volumes of original verse, beginning with Essais poétiques (1865). As in the case of Crémazie, his best poems are patriotic lyrics. To the same group of poets belongs, too, the historian Benjamin Sulte (q.v.), who, by Les Laurentiennes (1870) and Les chants nouveaux (1880), inspired by the songs of his people, won the title of national poet.

English Canada, settled by English, Irish, Scotch, and Germans, was really built up by the Loyalists (known in the United States as Tories) who emigrated from the United States at the close of the Revolutionary War. It is estimated that fully 35,000 left their southern homes. Some settled in Nova Scotia, and others founded New Brunswick and Upper Canada, or Ontario. During the period of struggle that followed down to the union of 1867, men had little time to devote to literature. As in the