case of the French in Lower Canada, or Quebec, the first writers were explorers and historians. Samuel Hearne (born in London in 1745) made three voyages of exploration, under the auspices of the Hudson's Bay Company, traveling 1300 miles on foot to the Great Slave Lake. After his death appeared his Account of a Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the North-West (1795). Alexander Mackenzie (born in Scotland about 1745) (q.v.), entering the service of the Northwest Fur Company, pushed beyond the Great Slave Lake down the river now bearing his name to the Arctic Ocean, and later crossed the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. The narrative of these two perilous explorations was published under the title, Voyages on the River Saint Lawrence and Through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans (1801; reprinted, New York, 1902). After heroic efforts and a bloody conflict, the Earl of Selkirk (q.v.) established a colony in the Red River Valley, now the flourishing Province of Manitoba. While in Montreal he wrote his Sketch of the British Fur Trade in North America (1816). From Joseph Bouchette, the surveyor-general, came two notable topographical descriptions of the Canadas (1815-32). All these works were published in London; but by this time histories were beginning to issue from the Canadian press. We may cite William Smith's History of Canada (1815), and David Thompson's War of 1812 (1832). The speeches of Joseph Howe (q.v.), delivered in the Parliament of Nova Scotia, possess rare eloquence. They were collected in 1858. As editor of the Nova Scotian, of Halifax, then the leading newspaper of Canada, he wrote two series of popular sketches, called "Western and Eastern Rambles" and "The Club." The former is based on observations made in travels through North America; the latter is an imitation of the Noctes Ambro

sianæ (q.v.). To the Nova Scotian, Thomas Chandler Haliburton (q.v.), a native of Nova Scotia and a judge of the Supreme Court, contributed the series of humorous papers known as The Clockmaker, or Sayings and Doings of Sam Slick of Slickville (1835 et seq.). The hero is a Yankee peddler into whose mouth is placed much telling criticism. The sketches were widely read in America and in England, and were translated into several languages. Oddly enough, though the Canadian humorist has had few successors in his own country, he is the father of dialect humor in the United States. Haliburton also wrote the standard history of Nova Scotia, and many books descriptive of his country.

The union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1841, and the subsequent confederation of all the provinces except Newfoundland and Labrador, mark a new era for Canada. The feeling of nationality unknown in earlier times has found impassioned expression in the verse of Roberts, especially in the poem beginning, "O Child of Nations, giant-limbed!" To the new era belong the eminent statesmen Sir Charles Tupper (q.v.), Alexander Mackenzie (q.v.), Sir John Macdonald (q.v.), and Sir Wilfrid Laurier (q.v.). The constitutional questions that have come to the front since 1840 have created a press which compares favorably with that of the United States or England. Of Canadian

journalists, Goldwin Smith (q.v.), who settled in Toronto in 1871, is known throughout the English-speaking world for his able work in politics and in literature. One of his best works is The United States: An Outline of Political History (1893). Of other miscellaneous writers it is possible to give here only a partial list. In history, where much has been well done, should be mentioned: Robert Christie's History of Lower Canada (6 vols., 184955); Alpheus Todd's Parliamentary Government in England (2 vols., 1867-68); J. C. Dent's The Last Forty Years (1881), and The Story of the Upper Canada Rebellion (2 vols., 188586); William Kingsford's History of Canada, the standard work (10 vols., 1887-97); James Hannay's (q.v.) History of Acadia (1879), and other historical works; Henry Scadding's Toronto, Past and Present (1884); Rev. George Bryce's Manitoba (1881) and Short History of the Canadian People (1887); G. M. Adam's (q.v.) The Canadian Northwest (1885); C. G. D. Roberts's (q.v.) History of Canada (1897); J. G. Bourinot's (q.v.) various books on Canadian history and literature, of which Canada Under British Rule appeared in 1900; and the publications of the Royal Society of Canada, founded in Ottawa in 1882.

The essayists and miscellaneous writers who have contributed to Canadian, American, and English periodicals, or have published books, are numerous. The range of their work may be gained from the following incomplete list: J. B. Crozier, whose Civilization and Progress (1885) won wide attention and secured for the author an English pension; N. F. Davin, a member of the House of Commons for Assiniboia, whose Culture and Practical Power was praised by Gladstone; S. E. Dawson, known for his fine study of Tennyson's Princess (2d ed. 1884); Sir William Dawson (q.v.), a geologist and naturalist, who has aimed in many books to reconcile science and religion; the Rev. W. H. Withrow (q.v.), author of The Catacombs of Rome, and other works; the Rev. G. M. Grant (q.v.), principal of Queen's College, Kingston, who has written several political and religious books, as Our National Objects and Aims (1890), and The Religions of the World (1895); T. A. Haultain, the author of literary brochures, as A Critique of Cardinal Newman's Exposition of the Illative Sense, and A Christmas Chat: a Fragmentary Dialogue on Love and Religion; J. C. Hopkins, who has written lives of Sir John Thompson, Gladstone, and Queen Victoria; W. D. LeSeur, the author of notable essays on Sainte-Beuve and Matthew Arnold; the Rev. John Maclean, whose books, as Our Savage Folk (1895), deal chiefly with the Indians; J. M. Oxley (q.v.), who has delighted boys with many capital sketches and stories, as Up Among the Ice Floes (1890), Archie McKenzie (1893), and In the Swing of the Sea (1897); and George Stewart, who has written excellently of Alcott and Emerson. Perhaps this is not the place to speak of Canada's scholars; but we should not pass without mention the well-known critical works of John Watson on Kant, Schelling, and English empirical philosophy as represented by Mill and Spencer.

In fiction Canada long lagged far behind the rest of the English-speaking world. She had

her reputable poets and historians long before there appeared a novelist known beyond her borders. But toward the close of the Nineteenth Century, a school of Canadian novelists gained recognition. Naturally enough, the first Canadian novels were in imitation of Cooper. John Galt (q.v.), a Scottish novelist, who lived for three years in Ontario, where he bore a hand in founding the now flourishing city of Guelph, published, on his return home, Lawrie Todd, or the Settlers in the Woods (1830), giving graphic accounts of frontier life. Major John Richardson (born in Ontario of Scotch parents, in 1797) followed Galt with Wacousta, or the Prophecy (1833), an exciting romance based on the siege of Detroit by Pontiac. The vein worked thus early was taken up in the last quarter of the Nineteenth Century. William Kirby's (q.v.) The Golden Dog, a Legend of Quebec (1877), enjoyed the distinction of two translations into French and the hearty praise of Tennyson. In The Romance of Dollard (1889), The Story of Tonty (1890), and The Lady of Fort Saint John (1891), Mrs. Mary Catherwood (q.v.) recalled stirring episodes of Canadian history. G. M. Adam, one of the ablest of Canadian journalists, also succeeded with An Algonquin Maiden (1886). Life in the rural districts of Ontario has been described by Mrs. J. B. Hammond in The Unexpected Bride (1895); and the far-off Northwest has found its way into the Devil's Playground (1894) of John Mackie and the Prairie Potpourri (1895) of Mrs. K. E. Hayes. Canadian legends are represented by Tales of the Soil by Miss B. L. Macdonell, who has long been interested in the folk-lore of her country. Miss M. R. Charlton is said to have been a pioneer in the fairy tale with her Wonder Web of Stories (1892) and With Printless Foot (1894). Phases of modern life in Ottawa have been depicted by Miss K. M. Barry in Honor Edgeworth and The Doctor's Daughter. Humor, in which Canadian literature has been deficient since Haliburton, has reappeared in The American Girl in London of Mrs. S. J. Cotes (q.v.), and in The Major's Big-Talk Stories of F. B. Crofton. In the Madonna of a Day (1896), Miss Lily Dougall (q.v.) has drawn a portrait of the modern woman. Equally brilliant is her Begyars All (1891). During the last few years the tale and the short story have been cultivated by many women. Among them are Mrs. S. F. Harrison (q.v.) and Miss Robertine Barry, who have depicted the simple manners of the habitant; Miss J. N. Mellwraith, who has contributed sketches of life in Ontario and Quebec to various periodicals; Mrs. M. A. Sadlier, who has depicted the Irishman in Willy Burke and similar tales; and Miss M. M. Saunders, author of Daisy (1892), and Beautiful Joe (1894), the autobiography of a dog, which had an immense sale throughout America and England. William McLennan has contributed to Harper's Magazine a series of sketches of Canadian life. Interesting as this fiction is, the one Canadian novelist who has been able to give vitality to Canadian themes is Sir Gilbert Parker (q.v.). By his Pierre and His People (1892), When Val mond Came to Pontiac (1895), The Seats of the Mighty (1896), The Right of Way (1901), and A Ladder of Swords (1904), he takes rank

among the most conspicuous contemporary novelists.

Except for fugitive pieces, English-Canadian verse begins with Mrs. Susannah Moodie (died 1885), a sister of Agnes Strickland, the popular historical writer. Settling in Ontario in 1832, Mrs. Moodie wrote considerable verse, some of which is to be found in the sketches entitled Roughing It in the Bush and Life in the Clearings (1853). Two themes, since often repeated, she treated beautifully in her lines on the maple and on the canoe. Contemporary with her was Charles Heavysege (q.v.), likewise born in England, who wrote a fine tragedy called Saul (1857). Since these two pioneers, the number of Canadian verse-writers has become very large. Rand's anthology (1900) contains 135 names. Conspicuous among the poets of the generation just past were Isabella Valancy Crawford (q.v.) and George Frederick Cameron (q.v.). The former is especially known for beautiful lyrics such as "The Master-Builder" and "The Axe of the Pioneer," and the latter for many passionate and defiant pieces like "What reck we of the creeds of men?" Archibald Lampman (q.v.), who died in 1899, was a poet of large promise. Indeed, he was compared by Howells to 'the great ones' of New England. He wrote in varied beautiful rhythms and on themes running from descriptions of external nature to an intense utterance of the great common emotions. Of living poets the best work has been done by C. G. D. Roberts (q.v.), W. W. Campbell (q.v.), Bliss Carman (q.v.), and Sir Gilbert Parker (q.v.), who are developing admirable powers of lyrical expression. Noteworthy lyrics have also been written by E. Pauline Johnson (q.v.). Among other English-Canadian poets belonging to the last part of the Nineteenth Century are Mrs. Sophie M. Almon-Hensley, John Henry Brown, Mrs. Sarah A. Curzon, F. A. Dixon, John Hunter Duvar, the Rev. A. W. H. Eaton, Mrs. S. Frances Harrison (q.v.), Joseph Howe (q.v.), William Kirby (q.v.), John T. Lespérance, William Douw Lighthall, Arthur John Lockhart, John E. Logan, Charles Mair, Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Alexander McLachlan, William McLennan, William P. MeKenzie, John McPherson, T. H. Rand, John Reade, Charles Sangster (q.v.), Duncan Campbell Scott (q.v.), Frederick George Scott, Charles Dawson Shantly, Arthur Weir, and Agnes Wetherald. These are a few in the throng of late singers, celebrated by Arthur Lockhart in his Masque of Minstrels, who have entered the courtyard and are demanding of the herald entrance into the high hall. "Crowns," they say, "have been won and worn by others. Admit us."

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The scattered material for the history of French-Canadian and English-Canadian literature may be found in the published Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada (Ottawa, 1883, et seq.). To the volume of 1893, J. G. Bourinot contributed a valuable paper, Canada's Intellectual Strength and Weakness, published in book form (Montreal, 1893). Consult, also: Roberts, History of Canada (Boston, 1897); The Canadian Men and Women of the. Time, edited by Morgan (Toronto, 1898). Horning and Burpee, Bibliography of Canadian Fiction (Toronto, 1904). For verse-anthologies, consult: Rand, Treasury of Canadian Verse (New York, 1900); Stedman, Victorian Anthol ogy (Boston, 1895); Songs of the Great Domin

ion, edited by Lighthall, Windsor series (London, 1889); Canadian Poems and Lays, edited by Lighthall, in Canterbury Poets Series (London, 1891); Younger American Poets, edited by Sladen and Roberts (London, 1891); Later Canadian Poems, edited by Wetherell (Toronto, 1893); and Chansons populaires du Canada, edited by Gagnon (Quebec, 1865). See CANADA; AMERICAN LITERATURE; and ENGLISH LITERA

TURE.

CANADIAN PERIOD. See ORDOVICIAN SYS

TEM.

CANADIAN POLITICAL PARTIES. See POLITICAL PARTIES, Canada.

CANADIAN RIVER. A river formed by the union of several branches flowing east from the Taos and Culebra range of the Rocky Mountains, at the border between New Mexico and Colorado, in longitude 105° 20′ W., and about 100 miles northeast of Santa Fe (Map: United States, Western Part, F 3). It flows nearly due south to latitude 35° 20′ N., then east across the panhandle of Texas and into Oklahoma, where at Taloga it turns southeast, forming from about longitude 97° 55′ to longitude 96° 45′ the boundary between Oklahoma and Indian Territory. It then flows through the Indian Territory toward the northeast and joins the Arkansas River, of which it is the chief tributary, at Tamaha. It is nearly 900 miles long, but, owing to closely paralleling other rivers in the lower part of its course, it drains a relatively small territory. The volume of water varies greatly in the wet and dry

seasons.

CANAIGRE, kå-nāʼger (Fr.) (Rumex hymenosepalus). A tannin-producing plant related to the docks and quite resembling the sour dock. It grows wild in the southwestern United States. The stem is nearly smooth, often reddish in color, grows from one to three feet high, and terminates in a branched flower-stalk. The

leaves vary from about 2 to 16 inches in length. The roots are tuberous, somewhat resembling small sweet potatoes, and are clustered in an upright position 3 to 12 inches below the surface of the ground. The value of the plant consists in the amount of tannin contained in the roots. The tannin content in the air-dried tubers varies from about 10 to 35 per cent., a quantity exceeding that in any other tannin-producing plant. The rapid decrease in the supply of wild canaigre has caused its culture to be undertaken during recent years in the Southwest, where some extensive plantations have been established. It is propagated mainly from the roots, one ton being required to plant an acre. The land is prepared and cultivated as for other root crops. Harvesting may begin after the plant has made its full period of growth, but it has been found that the percentage of tannin increases as the roots lie dormant in the ground. In the wild state the plant makes its growth during the winter and early spring, and by early June has seeded and the tops are dead. About fifteen tons of roots per acre is an average yield. The preparation for the market consists in slicing the roots and drying them in the sun. The extract obtained is especially adapted for tanning leather for uppers, fine saddlery, etc.

CANAL (Fr., from Lat. canalis, water-pipe). An artificial channel for water, constructed

for drainage, irrigation, supplying water-power, or purposes of navigation. The design and construction of canals of large size are much the same whatever their purpose may be; in this article the general questions of design and construction for all kinds of canals will be discussed, but for specific examples of canals for other purposes than navigation the articles on DRAINAGE, IRRIGATION, and WATER-POWER should be consulted.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. The two points which have mainly to be considered in canal design are the cross-section of the channel and its longitudinal profile. Considering the longitudinal profile first, it will readily be understood that a canal cannot, like a road or railway, adapt itself to the irregularities of the country by means of ascending and descending grades, but must consist of one or more practically level sections or reaches. When two or more reaches are required at different levels, the adjoining extremities of two reaches cannot be, for obvious reasons, connected by a grade in the channel. The various means for making such connections are described in the following section; but the fact which needs to be noted here is that, since the profile of the canal must consist of a series of level reaches at different elevations, care has to be exercised to select a route which will provide long reaches and consequently few changes in level. As in railway work, however, depressions in the ground may be crossed by embankments or other structures upon which the channel is carried.

Another matter which has to be carefully provided for is a supply of water to the highest reach, or summit level, as it is usually called; the reason for this being that this reach is constantly losing its water to the reaches below, and this loss must be supplied by streams or reservoirs so located as to discharge into the summit level. Distances being equal, a canal which connects two points with a single reach is considerable increase in length is allowable to preferable to one with two reaches. Indeed, a permit the canal to be constructed without a transferring a boat from one level to another by change of level. locks or the other usual means is a slow operation, and furthermore, locks are very expensive the ordinary channel. The engineer carefully into construct compared with a similar length of

The reason for this is that

tegrates these factors of time and cost and selects the route between the various points he wishes to connect which will give the minimum time of transit at the minimum cost. In deciding upon the cross-section to be given to the channel, two things have to be considered, viz. its dimensions and its form. As regards dimen

sions, they are determined largely by the size of the vessels with which it is proposed to navigate the canal. The width must be at least sufficient to permit two vessels of the largest size to pass each other without fouling. Another influencing factor is that the resistance to traction is greater in a restricted waterway.

It is generally assumed that a width of bottom equal to twice the beam of the largest vessel navigating the canal regularly is necessary, and that the depth of water should be about 1% feet greater than the draught of these vessels, if good results are to be obtained. The form of the cross-section is determined very largely by the

material through which the channel is cut, and by the location of the channel under certain circumstances. The bottom of the channel is always made flat; in soft ground the sides are made sloping, the angle of slope depending upon the stability of the material, being quite steep in firm materials and quite flat in unstable materials; and in rock the sides are made vertical or nearly so. The attempt is always made for the sake of economy of excavation to approach as nearly to a rectangular cross-section as the conditions will permit. When the canal passes through towns the sides are made vertical to save space and provide quays, retaining walls being used in soft ground to form vertical sides.

In

Canal construction consists chiefly of open-cut excavation, but embankments, aqueducts, tunnels, culverts, bridges, and a variety of other construction work are involved. The plant used and methods adopted in excavating canals depend very largely upon the size of the canal section and the material encountered. In rock the practice is the same everywhere, and consists in the use of power drills and explosives for breaking up the rock, and derricks, conveyors, and cars hauled by animal or mechanical power for removing it. In a boat canal of small section, the plant required is small and simple, but in large shipcanal sections very large and powerful machinery and elaborate power plants supplying compressed air and electricity are employed. small canals soft-ground excavation is commonly performed by means of shovels and plows for loosening the material, and scrapers and carts for carrying it from the excavation. In larger canals this plant is increased by the addition of grading and excavating machines and steamshovels loading into carts or cars hauled by horses or light locomotives. In ship canals of the largest section this plant is still further enlarged by the employment of special excavating and conveying machines and powerful dredges. Aqueducts are usually built in the form of masonry-arch bridges with the top formed into a channel for the water. Sometimes, however, masonry piers carry a wooden trough, or, in later years, one of steel. In embankments the channel is formed by building up the sides and lining the bottom and slopes with concrete or a layer of clay or other impervious material. Tunnels for canals are built in the same manner as tunnels for other purposes. (See TUNNELS.) Culverts are provided for carrying streams underneath the canal and bridges for carrying highways and roadways over it. See BRIDGE; CABLEWAY; CRANES; DRILLS; QUARRY.

LOCKS, INCLINES, AND LIFTS. The usual methods of transferring vessels from one level or reach of a canal to another one are by locks, inclines, or lifts. Of these three devices, the lock is the one most extensively employed. A lock is a masonry chamber built at the junction of the two reaches, the bottom of which is a continuation of the bottom of the lower reach and the top of which is at the same level as the banks of the upper reach. Structurally this chamber consists of two parallel masonry side walls, closed near each end by a pair of folding gates. When a vessel is passing from the lower reach to the upper reach through a lock, the sequence of operations is as follows: The lower gates being open and the water in the lock being at the same level as the water in the down reach,

the vessel is floated into the lock-chamber and the down gates are closed. By means of valves in the upper gates or culverts in the side walls or floor of the chamber, water from the upper reach is slowly admitted until the water-levels in the chamber and in the upper reach are the same. The upper gates are then opened and the boat floated out into the upper reach to continue its journey. To lock a vessel from the upper reach to the lower reach, the operations described are merely, reversed. The gates are usually made of wood or iron, and each leaf consists structurally of two vertical posts called the quoin-post and the miter-post, connected by horizontal frames, which serve as a framework for carrying the water-tight boarding or plating. The quoin-post has pivots at top and bottom which work in suitable fittings in the side wall, so that each gate-leaf swings open and shuts like a door.

A gate consists of two leaves, the swinging edges of which meet on the centre line of the chamber, but as each leaf is somewhat wider than half the width of the chamber, they do not form a straight diaphragm across the chamber when closed, but are shaped like a very flat letter V with its point projecting toward the upper level or reach. This construction gives greater strength to resist the pressure of the water. The height between the bottom of the down reach and the bottom of the upper reach is called the lift of the lock. The practicable height of lift in lock construction is limited, and where great differences in level have to be overcome, a series or flight of locks built end to end is employed. The dimensions and main structural features of the locks of several canals are given in succeeding sections.

Where a vessel passes through a lock from one level to another, a lockful of water is lost from the upper level to the lower level for each pair of boats passed. Where water is scarce and the total lift is large, therefore, resort is sometimes had to inclined planes up and down which the boats are transported in cradles or tanks running on wheels and hauled by cables or other power. Inclined planes for canals are of very early origin, being at one time quite extensively used, and some of these old inclines are described in the following section. A more important system of transferring canal-boats from one level to another is the vertical lift or liftlock system, which has been installed in a number of places and is proposed for several other places where very high and important differences of level occur. In the vertical lift-lock system, the boat is floated into a movable trough, the ends of which are closed by gates, while similar gates close the ends of the canal approaches. When the gates are closed behind the boat the trough is raised or lowered, as the case may be, until it coincides with the other level of the canal, when the front gates are opened and the boat proceeds upon its way. The trough is raised and lowered by means of hydraulic or other power aided sometimes by counterweights or flotation tanks. The first vertical lift on a large scale was that built at Anderton, England, in 1875; a second was built at Les Fontinettes, France, in 1885; a third at La Louvière, Belgium, in 1888; and a fourth at Heinrichenberg, Germany, in 1895. In 1895 a lift lock was designed to replace the flight of locks at Lockport,