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ings of the cathedral establishment include the deanery, the chapter-house, the treasury, the cloisters, and the baptistery; while remains of the archiepiscopal palace, the prior's house, the dormitory, and hostelries of different grades are also seen in the precincts.

Canterbury also contains a number of ancient churches, mostly built of rough flint, and other ecclesiastical buildings of considerable historical importance. The Church of Saint Martin is believed to date from pre-Saxon times, and in it King Ethelbert is said to have been baptized by Saint Augustine. Near by is the Benedictine Abbey of Saint Augustine, which has been restored and added to, and is now occupied as a missionary college in connection with the Anglican Church. The Church of Saint Dunstan contains the burial-vault of the Roper family, in which the head of Sir Thomas More is said to have been placed by his daughter. The secular buildings of interest are the guildhall, containing a collection of ancient arms, the corn exchange, military barracks for cavalry and infantry; the keep of the old castle, now utilized for gasworks; King's School, founded, according to tradition, in the Seventh Century, and remodeled under Henry VIII.; Saint John's Hospital, founded by Archbishop Lanfrane; and, in the Chequers Inn, scanty traces of the original hostelry of the pilgrims in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, the 'dormitory of the hundred beds' having been destroyed by fire in 1865. Besides the two schools already mentioned, the educational institutions include the Simon Langton Schools, opened in 1882; the Clergy Orphan School, a mile outside the city; and a museum and art school.

The city carries on a considerable trade in hops and corn, has important malting and brewing establishments, and a specialty in the manu

facture of brawn. The manufacture of silks, formerly a thriving industry, has been replaced by manufactures of damask linen and worsteds. The economic branch of Canterbury's history is interesting. The city returns one member to Parliament, and is governed by a mayor, aldermen, and councilors. The civic spirit has always been distinguished by a combative tenaciousness for its rights, and by progressiveness. The city owns real estate, markets, and electric power and lighting works, operated by the heat of a destructor, which consumes the city refuse; it provides technical instruction and maintains a museum, school of art, cemetery, and an irrigation farm, where the city sewage is deposited, chemically treated, and manufactured into manure and sold for fertilizing purposes.

was

Canterbury, the Roman Duroverním, built on a ford of the river Stour, at the point where roads from the three fortified Roman ports-Dover, Lynne, and Richborough-joined the great Roman highway through Britain, later known as Watling Street. It subsequently be came the Saxon Cantwaraburh (burgh of the men of Kent), the capital of that southeastern kingdom, and the centre from which England was Christianized. The Danes, in the Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh centuries, often ravaged and burned the city. After the murder and canonization of Thomas à Becket, Canterbury became of considerable importance as a place of pilgrimage The poet Chaucer, who died in 1400, has furnished interesting contemporary accounts of these

religious excursions in his Canterbury Tales. In 1215, during his invasion of England, Louis, Prince of France, took the castle. In 1381 Tyler's Rebellion (q.v.) originated in Canterbury. In 1538 the cathedral and other ecclesiastical institutions underwent extensive spoliation at the command of Henry VIII., and later suffered from fresh exactions levied by Edward VI. During the Civil War Canterbury was the scene of exciting struggles between the Royalists and the victorious Parlia mentarians, at whose hands the cathedral sustained considerable mutilation. Population, in 1891, 23,000; in 1901, 24,900. Consult: Willis, Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral (2 vols., London, 1845-69); Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury (12 vols., London, 1860-76); Brent, Canterbury in the Olden Time (London, 1879); Jenkins, Diocesan History of Canterbury (London, 1880); Stanley, Canterbury Cathedral (Philadelphia, 1895); White, Canterbury Cathedral (London, 1896); Evans and Goldney, Canterbury (Dover, 1899); "Canterbury as a Civic Centre," in Municipal Journal, Vol. VIII. (London, 1899), Snow, "English History in Canterbury Cathedral," in Canadian Magazine, Vol. XIV. (Toronto, 1900).

CANTERBURY. A provincial district of about 14.040 square miles, on the east coast of South Island, New Zealand, with Christchurch (q.v.) as its capital and Lyttelton (q.v.) as its port (Map: New Zealand, C 5). Population, in 1891, 128,471; in 1901, 143,040.

CANTERBURY BELLS.

Campanula medium, a biennial plant growing to A name given to a height of 1 to 4 feet. The stems are erect, very leafy, and the corolla is large, bell-shaped, and inflated. A variety, Calycanthema, which is extensively cultivated, has its calyx colored like the corolla, and is commonly known as cupand-saucer, from the shape of the flower. Doubleflowered forms are common, in which several cups are formed within one another. The Canterbury bells are among the most extensively cultivated of all the Campanulas (q.v.).

CANTERBURY COLLEGE. See OXFORD

UNIVERSITY.

CANTERBURY TALES. See CHAUCER.
CAN'THAREL'LUS. See FUNGI, EDIBLE.
CANTHAR'IDES. See BLISTER-BEETLE.

CANTICLES (Lat. canticulum, little song, from canere, to sing. The name of the book is in Lat. canticum canticorum, song of songs, Gk. ãoμа doμáтwv, asma asmatón, Heb. shir hashshirim). One of the books in the Hebrew canon. There is no reference to it in the Old Testament, the Old-Testament Apocrypha, Philo, Josephus, or the New Testament. The age of the Greek version is unknown, but it cannot well be later than the First Century A.D. The book is first mentioned in the Mishna (edited about A.D. 200). At the assembly of Jamnia (about A.D. 100) the rabbis are said to have been of different opinion as to its canonicity, some holding that it was not a sacred book, rendering the hands unclean so that they must be washed after contact with it (see BIBLE, Canon), while others strongly maintained its religious value, among these particu larly R. Akiba, Yadayim, iii. 5, Eduyoth, v. 3. This scholar denounced the men who would sing the songs of Canticles in wine-houses, Tosephta

Sanh. xii. It is evident that the allegorical as well as the literal interpretation was in vogue in the First Century A.D. Probably the ascription of Canticles to Solomon, the philosopher par excellence, caused the conviction that it must have a profound significance; and the allegorical method of the day led men to find in it a description of Jehovah's love for His people Israel. This interpretation passed from the Synagogue to the Church, with the modification that the bridegroom became Christ and the bride either the Church or the individual soul. Origen understood the poem very much as Akiba had, and Cocceius found in it the history of the Church down to the Synod of Dort in A.D. 1618, just as the Targumist had found the history of Israel down to the exile of B.C. 586. Some adherents of this allegorical interpretation, such as Vatablé, Bossuet, and Lowth, assumed a double sense, a description of earthly love at the same time intended to be typical of spiritual love. In defense of this view, it has been argued that the poem may have precisely the mystical sense that has been claimed for the love-songs of Hafiz and Jayadeva's Gitagovinda. It is not altogether inconceivable that a work which has furnished so rich nourishment to Christian mysticism itself may be the product of a similar Jewish mysticism. But where the mystical tendency and the allegorical method were most in evidence, in Philo's works, there is no trace of Canticles or anything like it. At the present time there is a practical agreement among scholars that the love depicted is solely that of man and woman.

The first Christian interpreter who discarded all allegorizing was Theodore of Mopsuestia (died 429). For this he was condemned in 551. Luther, curiously enough, looked upon Canticles as a political allegory teaching obedience to civil authority. The secular character of the poem was fully recognized by Sébastien Chateillon (1544). For this offense he was driven out of Geneva by Calvin. Luis de Leon (died 1591) was incarcerated by the Inquisition five years for suggesting in his Latin translation a similar view. Hugo Grotius, somewhat timidly, and Jean le Clerc, more decidedly, maintained that earthly love was depicted in the song. Observing what he deemed the immorality of some of the lyrics, J. D. Michaelis threw the book out of the canon, and J. S. Semler likewise questioned its canonicity. The conception of canonical authority prevalent in their time has now been generally abandoned; and the highly spiced descriptions of sexual passion have been justified, first by the supposed purpose of the author to protest against Solomon's harem life, and then by the assumption that wedded love is portrayed.

But is this poem of earthly love a drama or a mere collection of lyrics? And is the love described that of husband and wife, or of men and women who follow the promptings of passion regardless of social conventions? Already Origen says of Canticles, "Dramatis in modum mihi videtur." Cornelius a Lapide (Van den Steen, died 1637) divided the poem into five acts. Lowth (1753) regarded it as an imperfect drama lacking a regular plot. J. Wachter (1722) and J. F. Jacobi (1771) sought to indicate a plot. While the former made Solomon and the Shulamite the chief characters, the latter discovered in addition a shepherd lover. Delitzsch (1851-75)

gave the classical expression to what has been called the king theory,' while the 'shepherd theory' was especially developed by Velthusen (1786), Stäudlin (1792), and Ewald (1826, 1839, 1842). Through Ewald, this theory became widely accepted. Böttcher (1850) even more decidedly made the poem a modern operetta enacted on the stage. Hitzig (1855) discovered Solomon's wife, and Hirzel (1888) was able to find two shepherds and two shepherdesses. The latest critic who has accepted this view is Duhm (1902). He regards Canticles as an operetta resembling the mediaval miracle plays, and divides it into twenty lyrico-dramatic passages. The plot is simple; true love wins the day over all the efforts of Solomon to part the lovers and make the maid of Sharon his favorite wife. The songs are sung partly by individuals, such as the Shulamite, Solomon, and the shepherd, partly by choruses of harem-ladies, women of Zion, bridesmaids, and kinsfolk. Several objections have been urged against this theory. The ancient Hebrews possessed no theatre, and the Semitic race has produced no great dramatic genius; there is no intelligible plot in Canticles; there is a lack of verisimilitude in the King's character and behavior; there is something absurd in the idea that the heroine's answers to Solomon are in reality addresses to her absent lover; the necessity of putting the Shulamite to sleep on the stage, to dream through entire scenes, is not less embarrassing.

Bossuet (1693) and Lowth thought that Canticles might have been written for a royal wedding, and divided it into sections corresponding to the days of the feast. Renan (1869) made the important suggestion that it may be the libretto of a simple play performed privately at some rural wedding, where the singers took the parts of Solomon's guards, ladies of Jerusalem, and others. To this view he was led by the accounts of Schefer of such performances seen by him at Damietta and in Syria. Similar observations made by Wetzstein in the neighborhood of Damascus caused this scholar to think that Canticles is not a dream, but a collection of wedding songs, intended to set a standard of decency and good taste for wedding poets to follow. Certain features of the Syrian wedding, such as the bridal couple playing king and queen, the sword-dance of the bride, and the wasf or song in praise of the bride, particularly impressed him (1873). Wetzstein's view was accepted by Stade (1887), and particularly elaborated by Budde (1894-98), Siegfried (1898), and Cheyne (1899), who strongly emphasize that the poems throughout describe wedded love. theory, though more probable than the earlier views, is not wholly free from objection. It is difficult to see how a natural exegesis can find wedded love described in scenes that present the husband ex hypothesi, as knocking at his wife's window and being refused admittance on the ground that she is not dressed, or the heroine as roaming through the streets of the city at midnight in search of him, or expressing a wish that he were her brother that she might kiss him without being reproved. The necessity of resorting to dreams is again suspicious.

This

According to the theory of Herder (1778), accepted by Eichhorn, Goethe, De Wette, Döpke, Magnus, Diestel, and others, Canticles is simply an anthology of lyrical forms describing the love

of man and woman in all its different stages of development. This would be a most plausible theory were it not for the incidental dialogue, the references to King Solomon and the Shulamite, and the light thrown upon wedding customs in Syria by the observations of Schefer and Wetzstein.

A wholly satisfactory hypothesis must recognize the element of truth in each of these theories. There is, indeed, in Canticles a use of metaphor amounting at times to allegory. He who thinks that by gardens, fountains, trees, fruits, and wine these objects in nature are always meant, will not understand the songs. There is frequently an unmistakable double entendre. The love of the King and of the Shulamite is unquestionably of the same character. Yet there are beyond a question rustic lovers in the poem. However great the distance between Canticles and the Greek and Hindu drama, these country folk playing king and queen, bodyguard and harem in the wedding-week, seem to present a song-play that may be at the same time a reflection of Greek influence in the Decapolis and the abortive attempt at creating a native drama. But there is no movement of the action, no plot, no unity. As already Richard Simon (1628) and after him Herder recognized, the songs are clearly of different provenience. They do not all describe the love of a married couple. There are curious survivals shimmering through the poem of earlier forms of domestic life, polyandry, poly gamy, promiscuity, and of sexual aberrations such as the basium Florentinum, pointed out by J. D. Michaelis in his Or. und Exeg. Bibliothek (1774), page 169 ff.

It is now generally acknowledged that Solomon cannot have been the author of Canticles. The language itself, with its Neo-Hebraisms, Aramaisms, and Persian and Greek loan-words, indi

cates with sufficient clearness that the book is one of the latest in the Hebrew canon. Graetz regarded the author as dependent upon Theocritus (Third Century B.C.). Cheyne also thinks of the reign of one of the earlier Ptolemies. Siegfried is willing to go into the Second Century. Winckler has suggested that the book was written by a Jew in Damascus in the period of the Nabatean kings. There is indeed much that points to the trans-Jordanic region, and particularly to the Decapolis. It is of no small sig nificance that it is among the Greek lyric poets of the Decapolis that we find the first impassioned expression of a sense of beauty in nature. The reign of Aretas III. or Aretas IV. (c. 8563 B.C.) is, perhaps, the most probable date. Together with a strong emphasis upon the divine rights of passion, the supreme value of pure attachment between man and woman, it is the keen sense of beauty in nature that will always give to Canticles a distinguished place in ancient Hebrew literature. Consult: Herder, Das Lied der Lieder (Berlin, 1875); Ewald, Dichter des

alten Bundes (Göttingen, 1839); Delitzsch, Hoheslied und Koheleth (Leipzig, 1875); Renan, Le cantique des cantiques (Paris, 1860); Siegfried, Prediger und Hoheslied (Leipzig, 1898); Cheyne and Black, Encyclopædia Biblica (Leipzig, 1899).

CANTILEVER (probably Lat. quanta libra, of what weight, from quanta, abl. fem. sing. of quantus, how much libra, weight. The word

may possibly be derived from Eng. cant, angle, and lever). The part of a beam or girder which projects bracketwise beyond the point of support, as the brackets supporting a balcony or the projecting girders which carry a sidewalk outside of the trusses of a bridge. In bridges, a cantilever is a girder or truss anchored to a shore abutment and resting on a second outshore pier or tower beyond which it projects. Two such cantilevers extending out from the opposite shores of a stream and united by a truss constitute a cantilever bridge. For examples of such structures, see BRIDGE.

CANTIRE, kăn'tir', or KINTYRE. A peninsula in Argyllshire, Scotland, 43 miles long, with an average width of 6% miles (Map: Scotland, C4). It extends north and south between Arran Isle and the Atlantic, and is united at the Tarbet, a mile broad, across which the cutting north end with the mainland by the isthmus of of a canal is contemplated. The southwest point, the Mull of Kintyre, Ptolemy's Epidium Promontorium, is crowned by a lighthouse 297 feet above sea-level, visible 24 miles. Consult White, (London, 1873). Archæological Sketches in Scotland (Kintyre)

CANTON' (Chinese Kwang-chow-fu, or Shengsheng). One of the chief commercial cities of China, capital of the Province of Kwang-tung and residence of the viceroy for the two provinces the Chu-Kiang or Pearl River, about 70 miles of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. It is situated on

from the sea, in latitude 23° 7' 10" N., and The climate is longitude 113° 14′ 30′′ E. moderate and not unhealthful for Europeans. Canton consists of the city proper, inclosed by a wall, and the suburbs extending along both sides of the river. There is also a large population living in boats on the river. The city proper

An

is about 6 miles in circumference and is encircled by a brick wall laid on granite and sandstone foundations, and measuring about 20 feet in thickness and from 25 to 40 feet in height. inner wall divides the inclosed city into the new and the old city. The streets are long, narrow, and clean in comparison with the streets in most of the Chinese cities. The houses are mostly low, very few above two stories in height, and built of brick, stone, or wood. The pagodas are numerous and extensive; one of them, situated on the island of Honan on the opposite shore There is also a Mohammedan mosque. Among of the river, covering an area of seven acres. other interesting buildings are the Examination Hall, the arsenal, and the mint. There are a Gothic cathedral erected by the French mission; a hospital, founded in 1835 by the American mission; and an ancient foundling asylum. Chinese silk industry; it also produces cotton Canton is one of the principal seats of the goods, embroideries, paper, and some porcelain and metal ware. Owing to its advantageous position, Canton very early attracted the attention of foreign merchants. The Arabs are believed to have traded there as early as the Ninth Century. The first attempt by European Powers made in 1517, when a Portuguese mission was to open commercial relations with Canton was sent to Peking with such an object in view. The Dutch began to trade with the city later in the century, but were soon superseded by the British, who, after several unsuccessful attempts, estab

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