ill favor with the Duke, he offered his services to Venice, and led a most successful campaign against Milan. After the defeats of a second campaign, the Republic, suspecting treason, caused him to be beheaded. His fate has been celebrated in Manzoni's tragedy, Il conte di Carmagnola (1820). CARMAGNOLE, kär'må'nyôl' (Fr., perhaps from the Italian town Carmagnola). The name of a popular song and dance during the French Revolution, rivaling in popularity among patriots and soldiers the "Marseillaise" and the famous "Ça Ira" (q.v.). It first became well known after the storming of the Tuileries, August 10, 1792. The song began with: "Madame Véto avait promis," and every verse ended with the refrain: "Dansons la Carmagnole, vive le son, vive le son, Dansons la Carmagnole, vive le son du canon!" The words, however, did not always remain the same; couplets were added from time to time descriptive of the famous incidents of the Revolution, so that the Carmagnole became a typical song of the streets. Fashion soon adopted the word, which was next applied to a sort of jacket, worn as a symbol of patriotism. After wards it was applied to the bombastic and fanatical reports of the successes and glory of the French arms. With the passing of the Reign of Terror the song practically disappeared. CAR'MAN, WILLIAM BLISS (1861-). A Canadian journalist and poet. He was born at Fredericton, New Brunswick, April 15, 1861. He was graduated at the University of New Brunswick (1881), studied at the University of Edinburgh (1882-83), at Harvard (1886-88), practiced engineering, taught, and became literary editor of the New York Independent (1890-92). His first volume of verse, Low Tide on Grand Pré (1893), commanded general and favorable attention. It was followed by Songs from Vagabondia (1894); A Sea-Mark (1895); Ballads of Lost Haven (1897); By the Aurelian Wall (1898); More Songs from Vagabondia (1896); and Last Songs from Vagabondia (1900); Kinship of Nature (1903); Pipes of Pan (1904-5); From the Book of Valentines (1905). The volumes of Vagabondia were issued jointly with Richard Hovey. See CANADIAN LITERATURE. CARMARTHEN, or CAERMARTHEN, kär-märʼTHen (Welsh, Caer Fyrddyn, the Maridunum of Ptolemy). A seaport town, capital of Carmarthenshire, South Wales, on the right bank of the Towy, 25 miles north-northwest of Swansea (Map: Wales, B 5). It lies in a picturesque situation, but the streets are irregular, steep, and often narrow. The Towy is navigable for vessels of 200 tons up to the town. There are tin and iron works in the neighborhood, and the town carries on a considerable export trade in tin plates, cast iron, timber, marble, slates, lead ore, grain, butter, and eggs. Population, in 1901, 9900. Near Carmarthen are the remains of two Roman camps.. The neighborhood along the banks of the river was, according to tradition, one of the favorite haunts of Merlin the Enchanter. It was long the residence of the native princes of south Wales. CARMARTHENSHIRE, or CAERMARTHENSHIRE. A maritime county in South Wales, on the Bristol Channel. It is bounded north by Cardigan, from which it is separated. by the Teifi; east by Brecknock; south by Gla morgan and Carmarthen Bay; and west by Pembroke (Map: Wales, B 5). It is the larg est of the Welsh counties; area, 918 square miles, nearly a third of which is waste. Iron, coal, copper, and lead mining, stone-quarrying, cattle raising, grain - culture, hide curing, and woolen manufactures are the chief industries. The chief towns are Carmarthen (the county town), Llanelly, Llandeilo-vawr, Llandovery, Newcastle-in-Emlyn, and Kidwelly. Population, in 1891, 130,566; in 1901, 135.251. CAR'MEL (garden or choice plantation). A mountain range rising abruptly from the plain of Dothan, near Jenin, and extending in a northwest direction for about 26 miles (Map: Palestine, B 2). The northwest end is almost at the Mediterranean and terminates as abruptly as the eastern. The highest point of the range is at Esfiyeh, where 1810 feet above sea-level is reached. On the eastern side of the range is the Plain of Esdraelon, watered by the brook Kishon, and on the western side the Plain of Sharon. Carmel, though forming a natural barrier which affected the course taken by invaders of the country, did not play any part in the military history of the Jews, but it is important in the religious history. It was in the Carmel district, forming part of Ahab's dominions, somewhere between Samaria and Ekron, that Elijah had the priests of Baal slaughtered (I. Kings xviii. 17-39). Elisha also visited it (II. Kings ii. 25; iv. 25). Carmel was always productive, so that with the prophets it is the type of a land blessed by God (Isa. xxxv. 2; Jer. i. 19; Micah vii. 14), and the devastation of this district was threatened with severe punishment. The mountain was regarded as sacred and had the name 'Mount of God' in very early times. Anchorites established themselves there in the early days of Christianity, and many monasteries were built along the range in the course of time. One of these Napoleon used in 1799 as a hospital for the sick and wounded of his army. A German colony now cultivates a portion of the range, and has built a sanatorium upon the highest part. Consult George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 337-340. CAR'MEL. A town and county-seat of Putnam County, N. Y., 50 miles (direct) north by east of New York City; on Lake Gleneida and on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad (Map: New York, G 4). It is the seat of Drew Seminary for Young Women, and has a Literary Union Library. Within the limits of the town is the celebrated summer resort, Lake Mahopac. Carmel was the birthplace of Daniel Drew (q.v.), and here Enoch Crosby, the "spy" of Cooper's celebrated novel, is buried. Population, in 1890, 2912; in 1900, 2598; in 1905, 2601. CARMEL, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF OUR LADY OF MOUNT. An order instituted by Henry IV. of France to take the place of the Knights of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem, suppressed by him. It consisted of 100 gentlemen, all French, who were required to follow in general the Carmelite rule, as far as their life in the world would allow. The order was confirmed by bull by Pope Paul V., in 1608. The first grand master was Philibert de Nerestang, who had held the same position in the Order of Saint Lazarus. Louis XIV. restored the earlier name, and com bined it with the later. In his time the order numbered 145 commanderies, but the French Revolution put an end to it. CARMELITES, or ORDER OF OUR LADY OF MOUNT CARMEL. A monastic order about whose origin there has been no little controversy. At cne time it was piously believed to have been founded by the prophet Elijah; but this belief was dissipated by the learned editors of the Acta Sanctorum, who were able to demonstrate that it owed its origin to the crusader Bertrand, Count of Limoges. He had become a monk in Calabria in fulfillment of a vow made on the eve of a battle in which he was victorious. 1156, with ten companions, he took up his abode on Mount Carmel; their first definite rule was given them in 1208 by Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem. In 1240 the pressure of Mohammedan In domination induced them to abandon their settlement. Offshoots had already (1238) been founded in Cyprus and Messina; and now some went to Provence and some to England. Innocent IV., in 1245, sanctioned the change from a hermit to a community life, and ranked them with the mendicant orders. At a general chapter held at Aylesford, in Kent, the same year, an Englishman, Saint Simon Stock, was elected the first general. Under his leadership the order, with some modifications adapting it to climatic and other differences, spread through out central and western Europe. It is to him that the Virgin Mary is said to have revealed in a vision the scapular which became a distinctive mark of the order and those who were affiliated to it. From the white cloak which they wore, they received the popular name of White Friars. The rigidity of their rule was somewhat relaxed by Eugenius IV. in 1431; but some communities, objecting to this change, adhered to the stricter rule, and were known as Observantines, while the more lax were called Conventuals. The most thorough-going reform was that instituted by Saint Theresa (q.v.), who became a Carmelite novice in 1531, and labored unceasingly for a stricter discipline among the nuns. With the aid of Saint John of the Cross, she thus affected the male members of the order also. At her death, in 1582, there were seventeen houses of women and fifteen of men who followed the stricter rule, and were known as Discalced or Barefooted Carmelites. The order had fifty-two houses in England at the time of the dissolution of the monasteries. In 1901 there were fifty-one Carmelite fathers in the United States and Canada. CAR'MEN. A novel by Prosper Mérimée (1847). It was afterwards adapted for the operatic stage by Meilhac and Halévy, the score being furnished by Bizet and presented in 1875 at the Opéra Comique, Paris. Its plot deals with the career of a Spanish girl, who begins life in a cigarette factory, and ends with the tragedy which results from her capricious loves. The scene is laid partly in Seville. Consult Filon, Prosper Mérimée (Paris, 1894). CARMEN SAECULARE, sěk'û-la'rê. An ode by Horace, composed for the celebration of the Secular Games in B.C. 17. It contains 761 lines in 19 stanzas designed to be sung by a chorus of boys and one of girls. It was written at the request of Augustus and is not of a high order of poetic merit. CARMEN'TAL GATE. A gate of ancient Rome named after the Italian goddess Carmenta. Through it the Fabii passed on their fatal expedition against Veii. The gate in consequence was afterwards called Scelerata, the accursed. CARMI, kär'mi. A city and county-seat of White County, Ill., 38 miles west by north of Evansville, Ind., on the Louisville and Nashville and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis railroads and on the Little Wabash River (Map: Illinois, D 5). It is the centre of an agricultural region and exports fruit, grain, flour, tile, and lumber, and has flouring and saw mills, brick and tile works, machine-shops, stave and heading factory, ice factory, etc. Population, in 1890, 2785; in 1900, 2939. CAR'MINA BURA'NA. A collection of German and Latin poems written by the Goliards, or wandering scholars, mostly declared churchmen of the Twelfth and Thirteenth centuries. The name is derived from the Abbey of Benediktbeuern in Bavaria, where the manuscript, now in Munich, was once kept. The songs in form resemble hymns, and generally are rhymed. In matter they vary greatly, ranging from lofty sentiment to very worldly drinking songs. Some of the compositions severely satirize the prevalent vices of the various professions, particularly of the clergy. CARMIN'ATIVES (Fr. carminatif, Neo-Lat. carminativus, from Lat. carminare, to card wool, from carmen, card, for wool, from carere, to card wool; hardly from Lat. carmen, song, incantation). The medicines which relieve flatulence and pain in the bowels, such as cardamoms, peppermint, ginger, and other stimulating aro matics. CARMINE (Fr., Med. Lat. carmesinus, Pers. qirmizi, crimson, from Skt. krmiją, produced by a worm, from krmi, worm + janati, jāyatē, to be born). A beautiful red pigment obtained from cochineal and employed in the manufacture of the finer red inks, in the dyeing of silk, in coloring artificial flowers, and in miniature and water-color painting. It was first prepared by a Franciscan monk at Pisa, who discovered it accidentally while compounding some medicine containing cochineal, and in 1656 it began to be manufactured. One process for its preparation is as follows: Digest 1 pound of cochineal in 3 gallons of water for 15 minutes, add 1 ounce of cream of tartar, heat gently for 10 minutes, add half an ounce of alum, boil for 2 or 3 minutes, and after allowing any impurities to settle, place the clear liquid in clean glass pans, in which the carmine will be slowly deposited; after a time drain off the liquid, and let the carmine dry in the shade. In the preparation of carmine, much depends on a clear atmosphere and a bright, sunny day, as the pretty color of the carmine is never nearly so good when it has been prepared in dull weather; and this accounts, in great part, for the superiority of French carmine over that prepared elsewhere. An excellent quality of carmine may also be obtained by pulverizing cochineal, treating it with a solution of sodium carbonate, adding albumin to the solution, and then precipitating with dilute acid. The coloring principle of cochineal is carminic acid, C1H180101 an amorphous red substance soluble in water and in alcohol; carmine is a compound of this acid with chalk and alumina. With zinc oxide and alumina carminic acid forms the valuable coloring substance known as carmine lake, which is made from the residues of cochineal obtained in the manufacture of carmine. Carmine lake is largely used in painting and in printing. CARMO, kär'mo. See KArmö. CARMONA (Sp., of Celtiberian origin). A city of Spain, in the Province of Seville, 20 miles northeast of Seville (Map: Spain, C 4). It is situated on an elevated ridge, overlooking a fertile plain, and with its Moorish walls and cas tle has a very picturesque appearance. It contains the fine Gothic Church of Santa María; the Church of San Pedro, with a tower similar to the Giralda of Seville; a ruined Alcazar; and the interesting gates leading to Córdoba and Seville. A short distance from the city to the west is a Roman necropolis of great archæological value. The city has flour and oil mills, manufactures of woolen cloth, hats, leather, etc., and an important annual fair. Population, in 1900, 16,338. Carmona (known as Carmo) was of considerable importance under the Romans, a prominence which it retained in the Middle Ages. It fell into the power of the Moors, from whom Saint Ferdinand of Castile took it in 1247. CARMONTELLE, kär'môn'těl', LOUIS CARBOGIS (1717-1806). A French dramatist. was born in Paris, and for several years was reader to the Duke of Orleans, grandson of the regent. His literary reputation rests chiefly on his Proverbes dramatiques (10 vols., Paris, 1768-81; new ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1822), a series of short comedies adapted for private theatricals. In addition to this work, which has been freely borrowed from by later comic writers, his Théâtre de campagne, a collection of more than twentyfive comedies (4 vols., 1775), should be mentioned. He also had considerable artistic talent, and painted portraits of some of the most eminent persons of the Eighteenth Century. Proverbes et comédies posthumes de Carmontelle were published by Mme. de Genlis (3 vols., Paris, 1825). He CARNAC, kär′nåk' (Celtic). A Breton parish and village in the Department of Morbihan, France, 17 miles southeast of Lorient (Map: France, C 4). The village, situated on a gentle slope overlooking the Bay of Quiberon, has an interesting archaeological museum and a church built in 1639. The latter contains some fine marble altar-pieces of the Renaissance period. The inhabitants are engaged in agricultural and fishing pursuits, and coasting trade. Popula tion of village, 1901, 646; of commune, 3125. The parish has world-wide fame in connection with some of the most remarkable megalithic monuments extant, and with the remains of a Gallo-Roman town. The chief megalithic relics are situated about half a mile to the north of the village, near the road leading to Auray, on a spacious desolate plain bordering the seashore. They consist of long lines of roughly hewn granitic menhirs or standing stones, varying from 3 to 18 feet in height, which, weather-beaten and covered with minute white lichens, present a succession of weird avenues. There are three groups, containing 1991 menhirs; in the Sixteenth Century they numbered VOL. IV. 16. more than 15,000. Their exploitation for building purposes and to make room for agricultural improvements during the succeeding three centuries has been arrested by their becoming national property and being authoritatively classed among historical monuments. A fine view of the lines is obtained from the summit of Mont Saint-Michel, a grass-grown 'galgal' or tumulus, 65 feet high and 260 feet in diameter, consisting of blocks of stone piled over a dolmen and crowned with a chapel dedicated to the Archangel Michael. The origin and object of these ancient monuments remain a mystery. They have been the subject of much archæological speculation and are generally considered to be the Celtic monuments of a Druidical cult, traces of which exist in some of the primitive customs of the natives. In the year B.C. 56, from these shores Cæsar watched the naval victory of Decimus Brutus the younger over the Veneti in the Bay of Quiberon. The Romans occupied Brittany during five centuries, and considerable remains of GalloRoman habitations, with interesting relics, have been excavated at the Bossenno, i.e. mounds, on the plain, 1 mile to the east of Carnac, and also at the base of the artificial Mont Saint-Michel. Consult: Galles, Fouilles du Mont Saint-Michel en Carnac (Paris, 1864), and Tumulus et dolmens de Kercado (Paris, 1864); Fouquet, Des monuments celtiques et ruines romaines dans le Morbihan (Paris, 1873); Lukis, Chambered Barrows and Other Prehistoric Monuments in Morbihan (London, 1875); Miln, Excavations at Carnac (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1877-81); Worsfold, "The French Stonehenge," in British Archæological Association Journal, Vol. IV. (London, 1898). CARʼNALL, RUDOLPH VON (1804-74). A German mining engineer, born at Glatz (Silesia). He studied in Berlin in 1823-24, began an active connection with the mining industry in Upper Silesia, and by 1855 had risen to be a superintendent of mines and director of the general mining office in Breslau. In 1848 he assisted in founding the German Geological Society, and from 1849 to 1855 lectured at the University of Berlin on the science of mining engineering. He was a councilor in the mines and mining section of the Prussian Ministry of Commerce from 1854 to 1861. The Zeitschrift für das Berg-, Hütten und Salinenwesen im preussischen Staate was founded by him; and he rendered other important services to the development of German mining. and CARNARVON, or CAERNARVON, kärnärʼvon (Welsh, Caer-yn-ar-Fon, fort opposite Mona or Anglesey). A Parliamentary municipal borough and seaport in north Wales, the capital of Carnarvonshire, situated near the south end of the Menai Strait, on the right bank of the Seiont, about 69 miles west of Chester (Map: England, B 3). The castle, which was begun in the reign of Edward I., about 1283, is generally considered the handsomest and most extensive mediæval fortress in the United Kingdom. It is built of red stone, and is an irregular oblong in shape. The outer walls, from 8 to 14 feet in thickness, containing a passageway, are fortified by thirteen embattled towers. In the Eagle Tower the first Prince of Wales (afterwards Edward II.) is said to have been born. The town itself was once surrounded by walls and round towers. These walls, with several of the gates, still exist, and form a pleasant promenade. The streets are narrow, but regular, and at right angles to each other. The town is well lighted, and has a good water-supply. It is an important commercial centre. The harbor admits ships of 400 tons. The chief exports are copper, ore, coal, and slates, which are brought into the town by rail from the quarries in the neighborhood. There is also a great iron and brass foundry. There are manufactures of writing-slates, enameled slate slabs, and tobacco. Carnarvon is a bathing-place, and is much frequented by tourists, on account of its vicinity to the grandest scenery in north Wales. Population, in 1891, 9804; in 1901, 9760. Half a mile from Carnarvon are the remains of Segontium, or Car Seiont, a Roman station or city. There is a Roman fort on the left bank of the Seiont, still almost complete. The Earl of Chester fortified the place in 1098. In 1294 the town and castle were burned and the English inhabitants massacred by the Welsh under Madoc, the son of Llewelyn. Consult Hartshorne, "Carnarvon Castle," Archaeological Journal, Vol. VII. (London, 1850). CARNARVON, HENRY HOWARD MOLYNEUX HERBERT, fourth Earl of (1831-90). An Eng lish Conservative statesman. He was born in London June 24, 1831, and succeeded to the peerage in 1849. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, in 1852 he obtained a first class in classics, and, after taking his degree the following year, traveled through the Orient. In 1860, as a souvenir of the journey, he published a work entitled The Druses of the Lebanon. At his majority he took his seat in the House of Lords, and in 1858 Earl Derby made him Under Colonial Secretary. In 1859 he was elected high steward of Oxford University and created D.C.L. In 1866 he was appointed Colonial Secretary, and his policy met with the warmest approval. He framed a bill for the confedera tion of the British North American colonies, and had moved the second reading when he resigned office upon the Reform Bill of 1867, which he condemned as democratic and dangerous. On Disraeli's return to office, in 1874, Lord Carnarvon again became Colonial Secretary, but resigned in 1878. He was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1885-86), and died in London, June 28, 1890. He was the author of an address on Berkshire Archæology (1859); in 1869 edited Reminiscences of Athens and the Morea, by the late Earl of Carnarvon, his father, and published translations of the Agamemnon (1879), the Odyssey (1886), and Prometheus Vinctus (1893). CARNARVONSHIRE. A maritime county in north Wales, bounded north by the Irish Sea, east by Denbigh, with the Conway between, south by Merioneth and Cardigan Bay, and west by Carnarvon Bay and the Menai Strait, the latter separating it from Anglesey (Map: England, B 3). Area, 572 square miles, of which one-half is in pasture and only one-fortieth in tillage. The surface is mountainous. The mineral products of Carnarvonshire are copper, lead, zinc, coal, roofing and writing slates, slabs, chimney-piers, and honestone. The slate-quarries employ many thousands of workmen. The chief branch of rural industry is the rearing of black cattle for the dairy and of small sheep. Wheat, oats, bar The county ley, and potatoes are raised in the valleys. chief towns include Carnarvon (the town), Bangor, Pwllheli, and Conway. Population, in 1891, 117,586; in 1901, 125,649. CARNATIC (from Skt. Karnāta, name of a people in southern India). A former political division of somewhat indefinite dimensions on the eastern or Coromandel coast of the peninsula theatre of the struggle in the middle of the of India. It is famous in history as the grand land for supremacy in India. It was at that time Eighteenth Century between France and Engruled by the Nawab of Arcot, who was a vassal annexed by the British in 1801. of the Nizam of Hyderabad. The region was CARNATION (Fr., Lat. carnatio, from caro, flesh). A double-flowering variety of the clove pink (Dianthus caryophyllus) and one of the most popular flowers of that family. It is a native of the south of Europe, and has been in cultivation for more than 2000 years. It is a semihardy perennial (generally cultivated as an annual in America) 2 to 32 feet high, with a branching stem, opposite linear leaves, terminal flowers, and blossoming in England from June to August. The clove-like fragrance of the flowers gave to the plant its specific name caryophyllus (clove-tree, Caryophyllus aromaticus). Many varieties, with various forms and colors, are in cultivation. Red, white, pink, and yellow varieties predominate. The monthly, tree, ties now so extensively grown under glass in or perpetual-flowering carnations are the variethe United States for winter cut flowers. These ber to May, rooted in sand, transplanted to are propagated from cuttings taken from Decemplats or pots, and kept in a cool house until danger from heavy frost is past, when they are set in the field. Sandy loam soil heavily fertilized is preferred. The plants are set in rows 12 inches apart and 10 inches distant in the row when cultivated by hand, and in 3-foot rows when worked with a horse. If winter flowers are wanted, the rising shoots of the plants are regularly pruned back to 2 to 4 inches during the summer. In September the plants are lifted and transplanted to the forcing-house benches. The soil here is 4 to 5 inches deep, and consists usually of threefourths loam and one-fourth well-rotted manure. The plants are set 8 to 12 inches apart each way, heavily fertilized, and watered frequently with liquid manure. The temperature of the at 60° to 65° in the daytime and ten degrees carnation-house during the winter is maintained the plants are sometimes set in pots, and may lower at night. Instead of setting in benches, either be forced at once or set in cold frames and carried over for spring flowering. Some 500 varieties of carnations, all of American origin, are now in cultivation in the United States. See FLORICULTURE. Carnation Diseases.-Carnations are liable to a number of diseases, the more common and troublesome being anthracnose, rust, blight or spot, and a disease caused by the punctures of minute insects. The anthracnose (q.v.), which is caused by the fungus Volutella, is widespread, and causes grayish-brown spots on the leaves. Later the stems are invaded by the parasite, and the supply of nourishment for the plant cut off. Diseased cuttings will spread the infection, |