acterized by the presence of external ears. The sea-lions, sea-bears, sea-elephants, fur-seals, etc., are well-known examples. (2) Trichechida (or Rosmarida), the walruses (q.v.), of which only two species are known, characterized by the prolongation of the upper canine teeth into two powerful tusks. (3) Phocidæ, or earless seals, characterized by the absence of external ears and the lack of tusks; there are about ten genera and some twenty species.

Cuvier proposed to divide the typical carnivores into Plantigrades, walking on the entire sole (e.g. bears), and Digitigrades, walking on finger-tips (e.g. cats); but these functional differences are rendered useless by the multitude of transitional links connecting them, and it is more accurate and useful to divide the order into three sections, represented familiarly by bear, dog, and cat, and technically known as Arctoidea, Cynoidea, Æluroidea. The distinctions are based on certain features in the base of the skull, but are corroborated by other more general characteristics.

(1) The Arctoidea, which are less specialized and nearest the aquatic suborder, are composed of six families-namely, the fur-bearers (Mustelidæ), the bears (Ursidae), the raccoons (Procyonidae), and three small related families.

(2) The Cynoidea resemble the Arctoidea in most respects, and are composed of the single family Canida-dogs, foxes, etc.

(3) Eluroidea are the most specialized of carnivores, represented by cats, civets, etc., of which there are six families. The whole order of Carnivora embraces about 300 living species. PEDIGREE AND HISTORY. The fossil history of carnivora is of great interest, for not only have some remarkable forms like the sabre-toothed tiger (Machærodus) been unearthed, but the various families are linked together, as the cats and civets, by Proviverra, and the ancestors of at least the cats and the dogs are found in primitive generalized carnivores, such as Miacis, Oxhyæna, and Arctocyon. The group affords beautiful illustration of increasing and of divergent specialization, as illustrated in the passage from primitive forms to the lion on the one hand, and to the seal on the other. As to the relations of the carnivora to other orders of mammals, speculation is rife, but firmly based conclusions are hard to find. Looking backward, some naturalists have discovered affinities with the marsupials; while others, looking forward, have, with more abundant evidence, regarded the primitive carnivores as ancestral to Insectivora, and through them to Cheiroptera. And now there seems to be some evidence of not very distant relationship between Carnivora and Pri

mates.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult authorities referred to under MAMMALIA; CAT; DOG; BEAR, etc.

CARNIVOROUS PLANTS. A peculiar group of plants, part of whose food consists of animals, especially insects, captured by various contrivances, hence called also 'insectivorous plants. Most of these plants live in undrained swamps, where the soil is poor in nitrogen, and it is believed by many that the carnivorous habit is thus a decided advantage to the organism. The sundew (Drosera) is one of the commonest and most interesting of the group. The leaves bear glandular hairs, which secrete a sticky glisten

Pitcher-like leaves (ascidia) of the Pitcher-Plant (Sarracenia). Insects are often present in the liquid within the ascidia.

insects walk down the inner surface of the pitcher-like leaf and are prevented from escaping by the hairs that point downward. The aquatic bladderwort (Utricularia) has a sort of cel-trap device for entrapping insects. Consult: Darwin, Insectivorous Plants (London, 1875).

CARNOCHAN, kär'no-kan, JOHN MURRAY (1817-87). An American surgeon, born in Savannah, Ga. He was educated at Edinburgh University and at the College of Physicians. and Surgeons of New York, and in 1847 began practice in New York. Dr. Carnochan rapidly rose to the first rank among practicing physicians and surgeons, and acquired great celebrity for the boldness and success of his operations, such as the removal of the lower jaw; the cure of elephantiasis by ligature of the femoral artery; excision of the ulna while preserving to the arm most of its functions; amputating the thigh at the hip-joint, and particularly for removing,

in case of neuralgia, the entire trunk of the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves. Dr. Carnochan added much to the renown of American surgery. He was professor of the principles and practice of surgery in the New York Medical College, and health officer of the Port of New York. Besides numerous monographs of value on subjects connected with his profession, he published Treatise on Congenital Dislocations (1850), and Contributions to Operative Surgery (1877-86).

CARNOT, kär'no', LAZARE HIPPOLYTE (1801

88).

A French politician and journalist, the son of the Organizer of Victory.' He was born at Saint Omer, April 6, 1801. He studied for the law, but was debarred from practice for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Bourbons. Turning to journalism, he soon made a name for himself as a follower of Saint-Simon and his school, and became editor of Le Producteur, a radical journal of the day, but after the July Revolution forsook Saint-Simonism to a certain extent. In 1839 he entered the Chamber of Deputies as a representative from Paris and remained until 1848, voting with the extreme Left. After the February Revolution he accept ed the post of Minister of Public Instruction, but held it only a few months. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in May, 1850, he took his place among the Republicans opposed to the schemes of Louis Napoleon. After the coup d'état he refused to swear allegiance to Napoleon, and though several times elected to the Legislative Assembly, did not take his seat until 1864. In 1869 he was defeated in the elections by Gambetta and by Henri Rochefort, but in 1871 he was chosen deputy from Seine-et-Oise. Made a life Senator in 1875, Carnot took a prominent part in the debates of the Upper House, and spoke for the last time in 1888, a few days after his son Sadi had been elected President of the Republic. He died March 16, 1888. He was the author of numerous magazine articles and reviews, the most important being Exposé de la doctrine Saint-Simonienne (1830); Mémoires sur Carnot, par son fils (2 vols., 1861-64); La Révolution française (2 vols., 1867); Lazare Hoche (1874); and, with M. d'Angers, Mémoires de Bertrand Barère (4 vols., 1842-43). For his biography consult the Proceedings of the Académie des Sciences, Morales et Politiques (Paris, January, 1894); also Hubbard, Une famille républicaine: les Carnot (Paris, 1888).

CARNOT, LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE (1753-1823). A French strategist and mathematician. He was born at Nolay, and became, in 1791, a member of the Legislative Assembly from Pas-de-Calais. In the Convention he voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was elected to the Committee of Public Safety, intrusted with the chief direction of military affairs, and greatly contributed to the success of the French arms. He displayed extraordinary ability in this position, alike as a strategist and as an organizer. He created fourteen armies, placed them under the command of competent generals, and inspired the troops with an ardor which made them irresistible. Though he endeavored to restrict the power of Robespierre, he was impeached with others, after the Reign of Terror, but the charge was dismissed. Carnot became a member of the Directory in 1795, but having opposed the ex

treme measures of Barras, his colleague, he was suspected of being a royalist and sentenced to deportation in 1797. Having escaped to Germany, he wrote his famous defense, in which he laid bare the character of his associates in the Directory. The Eighteenth Brumaire brought him back to Paris. Bonaparte made him Minister of War in 1800. In this office he helped, by his energy, skill, and fertility of administrative resource, to achieve the brilliant results of the Italian and South-German campaigns; so that to him was given the name of 'Organizer of Victory. Being unable to agree with Bonaparte, he In 1802 he became resigned in the same year. a member of the tribunate, in which capacity he for life and particularly against an empire. When voted against the establishment of the consulate the tribunate was abolished, he retired to private life and devoted himself to his studies. But his services at his command in 1814. The com when fortune ceased to favor Napoleon he placed mand of Antwerp was given to him, and the city was heroically defended. During the Hundred Days he held office as Minister of the Interior. The title of Count was conferred upon him, but he never bore it. After the second restoration he withdrew to Warsaw, and from thence to Magdeburg, where he died, August 3, 1823. Carnot's chief contribution to mathematical science is a class of general theorems on the projective basis for the important works of Poncelet and properties of figures, which later formed the others. Among his numerous writings on mathe matics and military tactics are Essai sur les ma chines en général (1786); Réflexions sur la métaphysique du calcul infinitesimal (1797); and Géométrie de position (1803). Consult Arago, "Eulogy of Carnot," in Vol. I. of Arago's Euvres complètes (Paris, 1854).

CARNOT, MARIE FRANÇOIS SADI (1837-94). President of the French Republic from 1887 to 1894. He was the son of Lazare Hippolyte Carnot, and was born at Limoges, August 11, 1837. He received a scientific education, became an engineer, and advanced rapidly in his profession, acquiring a considerable reputation as the constructor of the large tubular bridge at Collongessur-Rhône. In 1870 he was stationed as Government engineer at Annécy and in 1871 Gambetta, who was then Minister of the Interior, made him the prefect of the Department of Seine-Inférieure. In this capacity he rendered important services to the Government, but after the capitulation of Paris resigned his office and sat as a deputy from Côte d'Or in the National Assembly. There he took a prominent part in all discussions concerning the future form of government for France, voting always with the Republicans of the Left, for whom he acted as secretary. He became a member of the new Chamber of Deputies in 1876, and in 1877 was secretary to the Chamber, besides being prominent in connection with the Public Works Committee. In 1880-81 he was Minister of Public Works, and held the same office again in 1885, in the Brisson Ministry, in which he later acted as Minister of Finance. On December 3, 1887, he was elected to succeed Grévy as President of the Republic. In the performance of the high functions of this office, Carnot won the respect of all by his tact and ability. He passed unscathed through the Panama disclosures of 1892. His term of office was almost over when he was

stabbed by an Italian anarchist named Caserio, in Lyons, and died the next day, June 25, 1894. He was succeeded as President by Casimir-Périer. Consult Hubbard, Une famille républicaine: les Carnot (Paris 1888).

CARNOT, NICOLAS LEONARD SADI (17961832). A French physicist, to whose early researches and theories must be ascribed the beginning of the modern science of thermodynamics (q.v.). He was born in Paris, the son of Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot. He entered the Polytechnic School in 1812, from which he passed into the corps of engineers, where he served until 1828. Working in this capacity, he had time and opportunity for scientific research, and in 1824 published his famous work, Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu, in which is described his cycle and reversible engine. Carnot's work was based on the theory that heat was a substance, 'caloric,' but so perfect was his reasoning that the theory required but few modifications to adapt it to the dynamical theory, which was later accepted, even by Carnot himself. According to Carnot, the amount of work done by a heat-engine depends on the amount of heat transferred and the difference in temperature between the source of heat and the receiver; work can be done only when heat passes from a warmer to a colder body. This is, in substance, the second law of thermodynamics, enunciated by Clausius in 1850, which stated that heat cannot of itself pass from a colder body to a hotter one, nor can it be so made to pass without any inanimate material mechanism; and no mechanism can be driven by a mere simple cooling of any material object below the temperature of surrounding objects. In order to study the efficiency of the steam-engine, Carnot devised a reversible engine where the amount of energy produced and heat applied could be investigated under ideal conditions. Carnot also appreciated the important principle now known as conservation of energy, stating that motive power is in quantity invariable in nature; it is, correctly speaking, never either produced or destroyed. Carnot's work was greatly extended and adapted to modern theories by Sir William Thomson, who published important papers in 1848 and 1849 which indicated that from these researches could be evolved the absolute thermodynamic scale of temperature. Carnot's great essay was printed in German, in Ostwald's Klassiker, No. 37 (Leipzig, 1892), and an English translation has been made by Prof. R. H. Thurston, to which was appended an Account of Carnot's Theory, by Lord Kelvin (New York, 1890).

CARNUN TUM (Lat., from the Celtic). An ancient town in Upper Pannonia, on the Danube, a few miles east of Vienna, founded by the Celts, but at an early period a Roman post. Marcus Aurelius resided here for three years, during his wars with the Marcomanni. In the Fourth Century Carnuntum was destroyed by German invaders. It was afterwards rebuilt, and finally destroyed in the Magyar wars of the Middle Ages.

CARO, kâr❜ô. A village and county-seat of Tuscola County, Mich., 26 miles (direct) east by south of Bay City, on the Cass River, and on the Michigan Central Railroad (Map: Michigan, K 5). It is in an agricultural country, adapted

particularly to the cultivation of sugar-beets, and has industrial interests represented by flourmills, grain-elevators, a large beet-sugar refinery, lumber-mills, brick and tile works, foundries and machine-shops, shoe, steel horse-collar, and telephone factories, marble-works, etc. Population, in 1890, 1701; in 1900, 2006; in 1904, 2268.

CARO, kä'rô, ANNIBALE (1507-66). An Italian poet, best remembered for his felicitous translation of Vergil's Encid. He was born at Civitanova, in Ancona; became at an early age tutor to the sons of Luigi Gaddi, in Florence; and in 1543 entered the service of Pier Luigi Farnese, nephew of Paul III., who sent him on numerous embassies, among others to the Emperor Charles V., in Flanders. After the death of Pier Luigi, Caro served successively the Duke Ottavio Farnese and the latter's brothers, the Cardinals Ranuccio and Alessandro, with whom he remained until his death, in 1566. Caro numbered among his friends many of the best-known men of letters of his day-Molza, Salviati, Vasari, and Tansillo. He was an accomplished letter-writer, and his Lettere familiari are not only full of interest, but have often been reprinted as models of style. One of his most faValois, written at the request of Cardinal Alesmous poems is a panegyric upon the House of sandro, which was the cause of a bitter and protracted controversy with a certain Castelvetro, resulting in the death of one of Caro's supporters and in Castelvetro's banishment. Caro's felicitous translation of the Eneid was begun, he tells us, "in jest, and only as an experiment," but he continued it for the pleasure of "making trial of the language in comparison with Latin." The translation, which remained unfinished, is rather a skillful paraphrase than a faithful rendering; but, like all his writings, bears the stamp of a cultured and polished style. The best editions of Caro's works were published in Venice (1757), in Milan (1806), and a volume of selected works appeared in Florence (1864).

CARO, kå'ro', ELME MARIE (1826-87). A French philosopher, born in Poitiers. He was appointed professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne in 1864, and elected to the Académie in 1874. His writings, many of them in opposition to modern positivism, comprise Etudes morales sur le temps présent (1855; 3d ed., 1875), L'idée de Dieu et ses nouveaux critiques (1864; 7th ed., 1883), and a study of Hartmann, Schopenhauer, and Leopardi in Le pessimisme au XIXe siècle (1878).

CARO, käʼrô, JAKOB (1836-1904). A German historian. He was born in Gnesen, and after studying in Berlin and Leipzig was professor of history in Jena until 1869, when he accepted a similar chair at the University of Breslau. His publications, which deal chiefly with Polish and Hussite history, include the continuation of Röpell's Geschichte Polens (3 vols., II.-V., 1863-88), published in Ukert and Heeren's Geschichte der europäischen Staaten; Das Interregnum Polens im Jahre 1587, und die Parteikämpfe der Häuser Zborowski und Zamojski (1861); Liber Cancel laria Stanislai Ciolek, Ein Formelbuch aus der hussitischen Bewegung (2 vols., 1871-74); Aus der Kanzlei Kaiser Sigismunds (1879); and Beata und Halszka, Eine polnisch-russische Geschichte aus dem 16. Jahrhundert (1883).