rism, in 1805, and since then the operation has been successfully performed many times. Owing to the numerous interchanges of branches between vessels of both sides of the head, cutting off the supply of blood through one carotid is seldom followed by impairment of brain structure or function. The common carotid in the horse is the termination of the right arteria in

CAROT

FACIAL

COMMON

CAROTID

CAROTID ARTERY.

nominata. It is a large vessel about an inch long, which emerges from the chest below the windpipe, and divides into the right and left carotids. These bend upward, having the wind pipe between them gradually inclining inward at the upper part, where each divides into external and internal carotids, and a large anastomosing branch arising from between these two. Consult Toldt, Anatomischer Atlas (Berlin and Vienna, 1900).

CAR'OTIN (Lat. carota, carrot). A group name for the yellow pigments common in leaves. Carotin is probably identical with the so-called xanthophyll. The yellow pigments may be dissolved out from leaves by alcohol and partially separated from the green ones (chlorophyll) by shaking the solution with benzine. After standing a short time, most of the green, being more freely soluble in the benzine, floats on the alcohol, which contains most of the yellow. Crystals of carotin may also be formed in the leaf-cells by appropriate treatment. Similar slender orange crystals are found in the color-bodies (see CHROMOPLASTS) of the carrot, from which the pigment took its name, and in some fruits. According to Arnaud, carotin is a hydrocarbon having the composition CH. See ETIOLIN.

CAROTO, kå-ro'to, GIAN FRANCESCO (14701546). An Italian' painter, born in Verona. He studied under Mantegna, whom he surpassed in majesty and harmony. His later works, which are said to imitate the manner of Leonardo, are severe in outline, but warmly colored. Most of his works are found in Verona, where the best-known is his series of pictures on the "History of Tobias," in Sant' Eusemia.

CAROUGE, kå'rōōzh'. A town of Switzerland, situated about one mile south of Geneva,

on the left bank of the Arve (Map: Switzerland, A 2). It is regularly built, is surrounded by villas, orchards, and meadows, and has a handsome church. There are manufactures of thread, clay pipes, leather, watches, and pottery, as well as of machinery and ironwork. A bridge across the Arve connects the town with Geneva. In 1780 the King of Sardinia, as ruler of Savoy, tried to make Carouge the industrial rival of Geneva, but failed. Population, in 1900, 7400.

CARP (Ger. Karpfe, OHG. charpho, Icel. karfi, Welsh carp, Russ. karpů, probably bor. rowed from the Germanic). A fresh-water fish (Cyprinus carpio), typical of the family Cyprinidæ (q.v.), now acclimated in all parts of the world. The body is robust, compressed, and covered with large scales; head naked; mouth rather small, toothless, with fleshy lips and four welldeveloped barbels. The dorsal fin is quite long, the anal much shorter. The color is a uniform dark brown above, growing quite light on the ventral side. The carp may attain a weight of 40 to 50 pounds, but the usual weight is much less than this. It thrives best in lakes and ponds, and in streams seeks the quiet, sluggish waters, where it feeds largely on vegetable matter, but will also eat insect-larvæ, worms, etc. The carp may reach an age of 200 years. spawns about June; the eggs, which are small, transparent, and number several hundred thou sand, are fastened to aquatic weeds, where they will endure great vicissitudes of weather and temperature. During the winter months it hibernates and does not take food. So exceedingly hardy is it, that it may be kept alive even for days in moist moss if properly fed, and conse quently may be transported great distances with facility.

The original home of the carp was southeastern Asia, where it has been tamed and cultivated since the earliest times by the Chinese, and where it is still found wild. It was introduced into northern Europe several centuries ago, and transplanted about the Fourteenth Century to Great Britain, under the name of German carp. From Europe it has been brought casually to North made to plant it extensively in the still waters America, and about 1870 a strong effort was the extreme prolificacy of the fish, quickly overof the United States; this succeeded widely, but crowding small ponds, and the comparative coarseness of its flesh, which is readily tainted by favor with the American public as in German foul waters, have prevented it finding as great Europe. There are three varieties of carp: (1) the scale-carp, which, excepting the head, is entirely covered with scales; (2) the mirrorcarp (Spiegelkarpfe of the Germans), which has three to four rows of very large scales along the sides, the rest of the body remaining bare; (3) the leather-carp (Lederkarpfe), in which the scales are entirely wanting. All these are equally good as food, although a preference is often shown for the scaled variety. To the angler, the carp is not a very valuable fish, as he is by no means a free biter. Several other fishes are called carps, notably the European congener called Crucian (q.v.), and the closely allied goldfish; also some entirely different ones, as the seabream and the American carp-suckers. See Plate of CARPS AND EUROPEAN ALLIES.

CARP, PETRACHE (1837-). A Rumanian statesman. He was born at Jassy, studied at

It

Bonn, took part in the overthrow of Cuza, and, after Prince Charles had ascended the throne, entered the diplomatic service. With Blarenberg he founded an anti-liberal journal. In 1870 ne became Minister of Foreign Affairs, in 1892 of Commerce, Agriculture, and Domains, and in 1890-1, premier and minister of finance. He was chiefly known for political discourses. CARPACCIO, kär-pä'chỏ, VITTORE, called Scarpaccia by Vasari (c.1450-c.1522). An Italian painter, important as marking the transition in the Venetian school from the fifteenth century to the heights which it attained in the sixteenth. He was born probably at Capo d'Istria, but spent most of his life in Venice, where he may have been a pupil and was for a time the assistant of Gentile Bellini, like whom he took up the new method of painting in oil. In 1490 he painted the great series of nine pictures on the life of Saint Ursula (Academy, Venice), which are remarkable for their mastery of the conditions of historical painting, for beauty of imagination and of detail. Next in importance is the series painted between 1502 and 1508 for the Dalmatian hospice of San Giorgio degli Schiavoni, Venice-nine pictures on the lives of Saints George, Jerome, and Tryphonius. In 1510 he produced what may be called his masterpiece, the "Presentation in the Temple" (Academy, Venice). A third great series, on the life of Saint Stephen (1511-15), has been scattered in the Louvre, Berlin, Milan, and Stuttgart. Like Gentile Bellini, Carpaccio has a wonderful talent of narrative, enlivening the solemnity of his subjects with a certain lightness of treatment which never fails to make them interesting; and while his drawing is often faulty, and the faces of his figures are unpleasant, his work is attractive by reason of his color, which, with all its golden brightness, is clear and harmonious. Consult Molmenti, Carpaccio, son temps et son œuvre (Venice, 1893). CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS. A mountain system of Central Europe, extending in the form of a broad are along nearly the entire boundary of Hungary east of the Danube (Map: Hungary, H 2). The arc, opening to the southwest, embraces the plain of Hungary and the elevated basin of Transylvania (Siebenbürgen), separating the former from the Austrian provinces of Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, and Bukowina on the northwest, north, and northeast, and the latter from Rumania on the east and south. Both

wings of the arc rest upon the Danube, the one terminating near Pressburg, where it is in juxtaposition to the Leitha range of the Austrian Alps, the other ending at Orsova, where it confronts the northern extension of the Balkans. The length of the system, following the curve, is about 800 miles. The Carpathian system is composed of numerous mountain groups which exhibit a variety of orographic and geological features. On the northwest the main elevations are included in the Kleine Karpaten (Little Carpathians), the Weisses Gebirge (White Range), and the Neutra and Tátra ranges. These ranges, with the bordering ranges of the West Beskiden and the Hungarian Erzgebirge, converge in northern Hungary to form a mountain knot, near the centre of which are the Hohe Tátra Mountains, the loftiest in the entire system. Eastward and southward the Carpathians are continued in a broad curve by the Ost Beskiden and by the Waldgebirge into

Transylvania, where the ranges widen out so as to surround on the east and west the basin of Transylvania, whose southern limit is the Transylvanian Alps.

The Carpathians include no summits that are comparable in elevation to the culminations of the Alps, but the mountains are frequently massive and imposing in appearance. The highest point of the system is the Gerlsdorferspitze of the Hohe Tátra Range, which is 8,737 feet. In the same range are the Lomnitzerspitze, 8642 feet; the Eisthalerspitze, 8630 feet; and the Schlagendorferspitze, and other peaks extending 8000 feet. In the eastern Carpathians there are many peaks from 5000 to over 7000 feet above the sea. The Transylvanian Alps, whose trend in the main is east and west, present an almost unbroken mountain barrier crowned by jagged summits that reach an extreme height of over 8000 feet, the loftiest peak, Negoi, being 8318 feet. In general, the higher elevations of the Carpathians are composed of granite and crystalline rocks, while the outlying lower ranges are formed by upturned and folded sedimentary strata. Mesozoic sandstone is the prevailing formation in the Beskiden, and granite, gneiss, and schist in the Transylvanian Alps. Eruptive igneous rocks are found along the whole system, but are most prominent in the Hungarian Erzge birge and in the ranges of Transylvania. These regions are noted for their deposits of gold, silver, lead, copper, and other metallic ores, which have been worked for many centuries. The Carpathian system forms the water-parting between the drainage basins of the Oder, Vistula, and Dniester, and of the middle Danube. Small lakes frequently occur in the interior of the mountains, particularly in the Hohe Tátra, where more than 100 have been found. Some of them are at great elevations, and many are very deep. These lakes are called by the Hungarians 'Eyes of the Sea.' There are no glaciers nor perennial snow-fields. Numerous passes cross the system, facilitating communication between Hungary and the bordering countries. The Carpathians are clothed with extensive forests of oak, beech, chestnut, and fir, which harbor bears, wolves, and lynxes. HUNGARY, and TRANSYLVANIA.

See

CAR/PATHOS. See SCARPANTO. CARPEAUX, kär'po', JEAN BAPTISTE (182775). A French sculptor, the pupil of Duret and Rude. His best-known works are: "The Fisher Boy," "Ugolino and His Children," "Neapolitan Fisherman," "France Enlightening the World and Protecting Agriculture and Science," the noted group, "La Danse" (1869), on the façade of the Paris Opera House, and "The Four Quarters of the World Sustaining the Sphere." Among his portrait busts are those of Gérôme and of Alexander Dumas, fils. Although the faults of the Naturalistic School are accentuated in his work, his robust imagination and technical skill give him a high place among latter-day sculptors.

CARPEL (Fr. carpelle, Neo-Lat. carpellum, from Gk. κаρrbs, karpos, fruit). One of the ovule-bearing elements of the pistil in flowering plants (angiosperms). The carpel is usually considered to be a modified single spore-bearing leaf (sporophyll). Several carpels are often blended together to form a single ovule-containing organ, which organ, whether consisting of one or many carpels, is called a pistil. See FLOWER.

CARPENTARIA, GULF OF. A broad and deep indentation of the north coast of Australia, with an average length and breadth of 350 miles, stretching from latitude 11° to 17° 30′ S., and from longitude 136° to 142° E. (Map: Australia, F1). It was named after Carpenter, a Dutchman, who discovered and partly explored it in 1627. The gulf contains many islands. The shores are generally low with extensive indentations on the western coast.

CAR'PENTER (OF. carpentier, Med. Lat. carpentarius, from Lat. carpentum, cart, from Ir. carbad, cairbh, chariot, carb, basket), NAVY. An officer of warrant rank in the United States and

British navies who acts as assistant to the executive officer in keeping the hull, spars, boats, etc., of a man-of-war in good condition. In the days of wooden ships he was a skilled mechanic in wooden shipbuilding, but since the advent of iron and steel ships he has been required to have a thorough knowledge of metal-working and a practical knowledge of shipbuilding in iron and steel, as well as of wood-working. The carpenter of a ship of the navy is assisted by several artisans, called collectively the carpenter's gang, which includes shipwrights, plumbers, blacksmiths, painters, and carpenter's mates. When a carpenter has served ten years as such he is commissioned as a chief carpenter, with the rank of ensign. His pay and status are the same as those of the boatswain.

CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840). An English Unitarian minister. He was born in Kidderminster, studied at the University of Glasgow, taught school from 1803 to 1805, and was employed in the Liverpool Athenæum. He then became pastor of a church in Exeter, and in 1817 removed to Bristol. At both places he conducted schools, having Harriet and James Martineau among his pupils in Bristol. He was much interested in the religious instruction of children, and established several Sunday-schools. He did much to broaden the spirit of English Unitarianism. He rejected the rite of baptism as a superstition and substituted a form of infant dedication. Among his works are: Unitarianism, the Doctrine of the Gospel (1809); Systematic Education (2 vols., 1815); Examination of the Charges Made Against Unitarians (1820); and Principles of Education (1820). Consult his Memoirs, edited by his son, R. L. Carpenter (London, 1842).

CARPENTER, LOUIS GEORGE (1861-). An American irrigation engineer, born in Orion, Mich. He graduated in 1879 at the Michigan Agricultural College, studied at Johns Hopkins University, and was appointed assistant professor of mathematics and engineering at the former institution. In 1888 he was appointed professor of engineering and physics at the Colorado Agricultural College. He was special agent of the United States artesian-wells investigation in 1890; founded the American Society of Irrigation Engineers in 1891, and in 1899 was appointed director of the agricultural experiment station at the Colorado Agricultural College. The first systematic instruction in irrigation engineering given in any American college was organized by

him.

CARPENTER, MARY (1807-77). An English philanthropist, the eldest child of the Rev. Dr. Lant Carpenter (q.v.). She took an active

part in the movement in behalf of orphaned or neglected children, and besides advocating their cause in her writings, founded several reformatories for girls, one of which, the Red Lodge Reformatory, she superintended. In the prosecution of her philanthropic labors, she visited India three times, and in 1871 organized the National Indian Association, whose journal she edited. Among her intimate friends were Harriet Martineau and Frances Power Cobbe, the latter being for some time associated with her at Red Lodge. She published: Reformatory Schools (1881); Juvenile Delinquents (1853); Our Convicts (2 vols., 1864), a book which drew public attention to the treatment of young criminals; and Six Months in India (2 vols., 1868). Consult J. E. Carpenter, Life and Work of Mary Carpenter

(London, 1879).

CARPENTER, MATTHEW HALE (1824-81). An American lawyer and politician, born in Moretown, Vt. He spent two years in the United States Military Academy; studied law with Rufus Choate, and in 1848 settled in Wisconsin. He was remarkably successful as a lawyer, and was especially notable for his defense of W. W. Belknap, Secretary of War, when the latter was impeached before the House of Representatives, and for his argument in favor of Samuel J. Tilden before the Electoral Commission (q.v.). Carpenter was twice elected United States Senator from Wisconsin, serving from 1869 to 1875, and again from 1879 until his death. Consult Flower, Life of Matthew Hale Carpenter (Madison, Wis., 1883).

CARPENTER, ROLLA CLINTON (1852-). An American engineer. He was born at Orion, Mich., and was graduated from the University of Michigan in 1875. In 1878 he was appointed professor of mathematics and civil engineering in the Michigan Agricultural College, where he also had charge of the mechanical department from its organization until 1888. In 1890 he was appointed professor of experimental engineering at Cornell University, also conducting the laboratory of the department of experimental mechanics and research, probably the best department of its kind hitherto established. He was president of the Michigan Engineering Society in 1889; chairman of the national committee for the education of engineers in 1891; and president of the American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers (1898). In addition to numerous scientific papers, he has published the following works: Instructions for Mechanical Laboratory Practice; and Text-Book of Experimental Engineering (1892).

CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (181385). An English physiologist, born at Exeter. Soon after his graduation in Edinburgh, in 1839, he published his Principles of General and Comparative Physiology, afterwards divided into The Principles of Comparative Physiology and The Principles of General Physiology. These works, together with The Principles of Human Physiol ogy (1846, and still a standard work, after going through many editions) and The Principles of Mental Physiology (1874), form a perfect cyclopædia of biological science. Carpenter likewise published: A Manual of Physiology; The Microscope, Its Revelations and Its Uses (6th ed., 1881); a prize essay upon The Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors (1851); and numerous

memoirs on various departments of physiology, microscopical anatomy, and natural history, in the Philosophical Transactions. His most important original researches are On the Structure of Shells; On the Development of Purpura Lapillus; and On the Structure, Functions, and General History of the Foraminifera. His published works also include: Zoology and the Instincts of Animals (1857); Physiology of Temperance (1870); Mesmerism and Spiritualism (1877); and Nature and Man (1888). For several years he edited The British and Foreign MedicoChirurgical Review, and he was one of the editors of The Natural History Review. From 1856 to 1879 he was registrar of the University of London. He took a chief part in the Government expedition sent out in 1868-70 for deepsea exploration in the northern Atlantic, and in consequence he contributed largely to the discussion of the vexed question of ocean circulation, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society and other periodicals. He advocated the doctrine of a vertical circulation, sustained by opposition of temperature only, independent of and distinct from the horizontal currents produced by winds. This doctrine was first advanced by Professor Lenz, of Saint Petersburg, in 1845; but Dr. Carpenter was ignorant of this when the deep-sea observations, begun in 1868, led him to an identical theory. He was president, in 1872, of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

CARPENTER, WILLIAM BOYD (1841-). An English clergyman of the Established Church, Bishop of Ripon. He was born in Liverpool, was educated at the Royal Institution, Liverpool, and Saint Catherine's College, Cambridge, and was appointed Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1878. In 1887 he was appointed Bampton lecturer at Oxford, and in 1895 pastoral lecturer on theology at Cambridge. He held several curacies, was vicar of Christ Church, Lancaster Gate, from 1879 to 1884, canon of Windsor in 1882-84, and chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria in 1883 and 1884, when he was appointed Bishop of Ripon. His publications include: a Commentary on Revelation (1879); Permanent Elements of Religion (Bampton lectures, 1889); Lectures on Preaching (1895); a Popular History of the Church of England (1900); and Wit ness to the Influence of Christ (1905).

CARPENTER BEE. A solitary bee that excavates its nest in solid wood, in a dead twig, or in the pith-hollow of various plants; it represents in the United States various species of Ceratinidæ and Xylocopidæ. The former are smooth, active, fly-like little bees, usually metallic blue or green, of which the Ceratina dupla, one-quarter inch long, is a familiar example. It bores tunnels into the stems of pithy plants, and especially of brambles. This tunnel is divided into small compartments by partitions made of agglutinated pith. An egg, together with some pollen, is inclosed in each compartment until the entire burrow is filled save a small space at the entrance just large enough to contain the parent female, where she awaits the hatching of her children. The hatching occurs in each compartment in succession, beginning with the bottom, each bee tearing out the partition of its own cell and awaiting the birth of the bee above it. When all are ready the

female sallies forth with her brood, and soon after arranges for a second. The large carpenter bees of the family Xylocopidæ are represented all over the northern United States by Xylocopa virginica, which is as large and noisy as a bumblebee, but differently colored, and its hind legs bear tufts of hair instead of pollen-baskets. This bee bores its tunnels, which are nearly half an inch in calibre, in solid wood, such as that of dead timber, dry stumps, fence-posts, and unpainted woodwork about houses and outbuildings; it is therefore easy to observe the method in detail. A short perpendicular entrance made across the grain leads into the centre of a burrow following the grain, which may be 18 inches long, requiring a month's labor. The raspings formed in excavation are agglutinated, probably by salivary excretions, into partitions dividing the burrow into cells about two-thirds of an inch long, in which the eggs are placed together with balls of pollen and nectar. Several bees may use the same entrance to the tunnel and several chambers may run parallel, but usually they run in opposite directions from the common door. These bees will often utilize an old burrow to save the great labor of digging, and would do so more regularly, perhaps, did they not often find them already preempted by other kinds of insects. See BEE, and see Plate of WILD BEES.

CARPENTRAS, kär'pän'trä (ancient Carpentoracte, of Celtic origin). A town in the Department of Vaucluse, France, on the left bank of the Auzon, 16 miles by rail northeast of Avignon (Map: France, M 7). It contains a number of Roman remains, including a small triumphal arch. It has also an old cathedral, an episcopal palace (now used as a palais de justice), a theatre, and a library. The chief products are leather, wax, chemicals, and fruit. Population, in 1896, 8391; in 1901, 10,443.

CARPENTRY. See BUILDING, and WOODWORKING MACHINERY. The artistic side of carpentry is treated under ARCHITECTURE.

CARPET (OF. carpite, It. carpita, a coarse cloth, Med. Lat. carpeta, carpita, from Lat. carpere, to pluck). A cloth or other woven fabric used to cover a floor. Woven carpets were first used in the East, where the custom of sitting cross-legged on the floor still renders them especially useful. Our early ancestors covered the floors of their houses with rushes, hair, or straw, and carpets, when first introduced, were used to cover tables. As late as 1736 a carpet is defined, in Bailey's Dictionarium Britannicum, as a tablecover; but in a succeeding edition, published in 1766, it is described as a covering for a table, passageway, or floor. At first the carpets used in Europe were all imported from the East, and the trade was largely in the hands of the Italian cities. Long before this, however, noble ladies, monks, and nuns in convents had been accustomed to make beautiful tapestries, which were occasionally used as floor-coverings. In 1607 a regular factory was established at the Louvre for making these wall-hangings and carpets, by the reigning King of France, Henry IV. In 1627 the carpet-factory known as the Savonnerie was established in Chaillot, and in 1664 Colbert, Minister of Louis XIV., established a carpet-factory at Beauvais. Most of the weavers in these factories were Protestants, of Flemish descent, and, with the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

they established carpet-factories in those countries where as fugitives they settled. At this time (1685), and by this means, the English carpet industry began. In 1735 the manufacture of ingrain carpeting had become a flourishing industry in the town of Kidderminster, after which this style of carpeting is sometimes called Kidderminster. In 1831 Richard Whytock invented the process of making tapestry and velvet carpets which is described below. This was an important event in the history of the carpet industry, for it put upon the market a comparatively inexpensive pile carpet differing entirely in appearance from the Scotch ingrains.

The history of carpet manufacture in the United States begins with the rag-carpet industry, which continued to be of considerable importance until after the third quarter of the Nineteenth Century. Each village had its weavers, to whom the thrifty housewives brought their balls of rags, carefully sewed together and brilliantly dyed. So late as 1890 there were in the United States 854 rag-carpet weavers' shops, with an annual output valued at $1,714,480. The first factory for the manufacture of yarn carpets was built in Philadelphia in 1791. The Jacquard apparatus for weaving designs was introduced in 1829, and in 1841 Erastus Biglow perfected the first power loom for weaving carpets, which saved 33% per cent. in the cost of labor. There were then about thirty carpet-factories in the United States, most of which made ingrain carpets. Ten years later Biglow devised a power loom for weaving Brussels carpets, and thereby greatly increased the extent of their manufacture. The United States is now the greatest producer and consumer of carpets in the world. Most of the wool used in the manufacture of American carpets is imported, as the homegrown product is of too fine a quality for this

purpose.

Excluding the Oriental rugs (see RUGS), the principal varieties of carpets in commerce are the Axminster, the Brussels, the Wilton, Moquette, Tapestry Brussels, Velvet, Ingrain, and Venetian.

The French Savonnerie carpets are woven at the same factory in Paris where the Gobelin tapestries are made. They have a velvet pile, and are made by hand in one piece, the looms being large enough for several workmen to work at one time. The surface is formed by knotting the woof and warp threads together in a complicated manner, and then shearing the surface. Aubusson carpets are made at the famous tapestry factories in Aubusson, and are a species of tapestry carpet. The centre design of an Aubusson carpet is usually a medallion. The Savonnerie and Aubusson carpets, being of fine material and hand-made, are among the most expensive of floor-coverings. The real Turkey carpet is made in one piece. The patterns consist merely of curved and angular stripes, of variegated but dark and unobtrusive colors. The warp is of strong linen or cotton, to which bunches or tufts of colored worsted are tied according to the pattern, a drawing of which is placed before the weaver to copy. The colored worsteds are tied very rapidly by young girls. The Axminster carpet is merely the Englishmade Turkey carpet, first produced in Axminster, England, in 1755, by Thomas Whitty. They

VOL. IV.-17.

In

are usually made to order, of the size required for the room. From the tediousness of the proc ess of manufacture and the large amount of wool required, they are very expensive. The Berlin carpets, made in Germany and in the United States, are similar to the hand-made Axminsters. making chenille Axminsters, the chenille is first woven, cut into strips, and bound into thick tufts, which are held firmly together in a row by the binding thread. The chenille is then woven into a carpet, being used as the weft thread. Chenille Axminsters over 27 inches wide are woven on a hand loom. The machine Axminster is made like a moquette, described below, but is usually finer and of better quality.

The body Brussels carpet is a mixture of linen and worsted; but, like the Turkey carpet, the worsted only is shown on the upper surface. The basis or cloth is a coarse linen fabric, and between the upper and under threads of the filling several worsted threads of different colors are firmly bound in. The pattern is produced by drawing to the surface, between the reticulations of the cloth basis, a portion of the worsted thread of the color required at that spot to produce the pattern. These updrawn portions are formed into loops, by being turned over wires, which are afterwards withdrawn, and the loops thus left standing above the basis form the figured surface of the carpet.

Wilton carpets are made upon looms similar to those for Brussels carpets, except that the wires over which the loops of the pile are formed have sharp knives forged upon the end, so that in drawing out, this knife cuts the loop, thus making the velvet pile. Such carpets are sheared to make them smooth. The loops are made longer than in Brussels carpeting, and it usually contains about 50 per cent. more wool. In the United States, the carpet called moquette is a machine-made imitation of a carpeting made by hand at Nîmes, France. The machine moquette was first manufactured in 1856, on a loom invented by Halcyon Skinner. It is a pile carpet, but the pile is not formed with wires, but by cutting off little pieces of woolen thread and fastening them in tufts to the warp thread.

Carpets known as tapestry Brussels and velvet are very extensively used as a cheap substitute for Brussels and Wilton, which they are made to resemble very closely in the brilliancy and variety of pattern. The manufacture of this kind of carpet is curious and ingenious. Instead of several colored yarns, only one of which is drawn to the surface at any one place, while the others remain buried between the upper and under threads of the cloth basis, a single colored yarn is used, and the variety of color produced by printing upon it various colors at intervals of its length. The yarn is wound upon a drum, and printed by means of rollers in such a manner

that when the threads are unwound and laid in line side by side, they present an elongated printing of the pattern; so that a rose, for example, the outline of which should be nearly circular, will be an oval, with length equal to four times its breadth. When, however, the thread is looped over the wire, four inches of yarn being used for an inch of the carpet pattern, the elongation is exactly compensated, and the rose appears in its proper proportions. The machinery required for this is, of course, much simpler than that for the