Bohemian Brethren. (See the articles on these sects in this Encyclopædia.) The term catechism appears to have been first employed in its present sense among the last-named. At an early period in the history of the Reformation, the reformers began to avail themselves of this method of popular instruction, and their catechisms became important instruments in that great religious movement. In 1520 Luther published his first short catechism. In 1525 Justus Jonas and John Agricola were intrusted with the preparation of a catechism. In 1529 Luther published his larger and smaller catechisms, which found a place among the symbolical books or standards of the Lutheran churches. A number of catechisms were published also by the Swiss reformers, and by those of England and other countries. The Geneva catechisms, larger and smaller, were the work of Calvin. They were published in 1536, were speedily translated into various languages, and became acknowledged standards of the Reformed churches, not only in Switzerland, but in the Netherlands, in France, and in Hungary. The Church of Geneva has set aside the authority of these catechisms. The Zurich Catechism is received as a standard in the Church of Zurich. The Heidelberg or Palatinate Catechism is of greater importance, however, than any other as a standard of the German reformed churches. It was compiled by the Heidelberg theologians, Caspar Olevian and Zacharias Ursinus, at the request of the Elector Frederick III. of the Palatinate; it was published in 1563, was approved by several synods, and was subjected to a revision by the Synod of Dort. In the Church of Rome the Tridentine Catechism is of high authority. It was prepared in accordance with the decrees of the Council of Trent, by Archbishops Leonardo Marino and Muzio Calini, Bishop Egidio Foscarini, and the Portuguese Dominican, Francesco Fureiro; revised by Cardinals Borromeo and Sirlet, and sanctioned by Pope Pius V. It was published in Rome in 1566. The catechism of the Orthodox Greek Church was prepared by Peter Mogilas, metropolitan in Kiev, and published in 1642. It received authority as a standard or symbolical book from a synod in Jerusalem in 1672. It is often called the Larger Russian Catechism, to distinguish it from the Smaller Catechism prepared by order of Peter the Great. Besides these catechisms, which have a historic interest, or are of importance from their symbolical character, there have appeared at all periods since the Reformation many others, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, some doctrinal, some controversial, some devoted to particular subjects, as the sacraments, or to particular purposes, as the preparation of candidates for admission to the Lord's Supper, some adapted to the mental capacity of very young children, etc.

The Catechism of the Church of England is published in the Book of Common Prayer. It is in two parts: the first contains and explains the baptismal covenant, the creed, the ten commandments, and the Lord's Prayer; the second explains the two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper. It is not known with absolute certainty who was the author of the first part; probably Thomas Cranmer and Nicholas Ridley had the principal hand in framing the questions and answers. It was originally put forth with the 42 articles in the reign of Edward VI., and

condemned as heretical in the reign of Mary. It must not be confounded with Cranmer's catechism, which was a larger work, differently arranged, and translated chiefly from the German catechism used in Nuremberg. This first part of the Church Catechism is spoken of as the Shorter Catechism. There was a larger Church Catechism compiled also in the reign of Edward VI., by John Ponet, as is supposed, and it corresponds in some degree with the smaller work above described. It appeared in 1553, but was afterwards revised and enlarged by Laurence Nowell, Dean of Saint Paul's, and published in 1570; and though never officially promulgated by the Church, it has some authority from having been approved by the Lower House of Convocation. At the Hampton Court Conference (1604) at the beginning of the reign of James I., the Shorter Catechism was considered too short, and the larger one of Nowell's too long; and accordingly, at the King's suggestion, an addition was made to the former of that explanation of the two sacraments which now forms the second part of the Church Catechism. This was drawn up by Rev. Dr. John Overall. The rubrics in the Common Prayer Book enjoin the teaching of the Catechism in the church on Sundays and holy days after the second lesson at evening prayer; the 59th canon contains a like injunction, imposing penalties on the clergy who neglect this.

The Larger and the Shorter Catechisms, which, with the Westminster Confession of Faith, constitute the standards or symbolical books of the English-speaking Presbyterian churches, were compiled by the Assembly of Divines at Westminster; the Shorter Catechism "to be a directory for catechising such as are of weaker capacity;" the Larger, "for catechising such as have made some proficiency in the knowledge of the Christian religion." The Shorter Catechism was presented to the English House of Commons on November 5, 1647; the Larger on April 14, 1648; and in July, 1648, both received the sanction of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, which, in the act of approving of the Larger Catechism, declared it to be "a rich treasure for increasing knowledge among the people of God," and that "they bless the Lord that so excellent a catechism has been prepared." The Shorter Catechism has, however, been far more generally used for the purpose of instruction than the Larger, which has been generally felt to be too minute in its statements, and too burdensome to the memory to be employed as a catechism.

CATECHU, kăt'ê-kú or -chu (Neo-Lat., from Kanarese, Malay kachu, catechu). A substance of vegetable origin employed in tanning and dyeing, and medicinally as an astringent. In the East it is much used for chewing. The catechu of commerce is obtained chiefly from East Indian trees, such as the Acacia catechu and Acacia suma. It is known in India by the name Kutt; and catechu is said to be a name compounded of two words signifying 'the juice of a tree' (cate, a tree, and chu, juice). Cutch is another form of one or other of these two names, and is

a

common commercial name. Catechu is obtained from the heart-wood of the trees by cutting it into small chips, and boiling in water till the extract has the thickness of tar. It is then allowed to harden for two days, so that it will not run, and is formed into balls about the size of oranges, which are placed on husks of

rice or on leaves, and appear in commerce enveloped in them. The catechu manufacturers in northern India move to different parts of the country at different seasons, and erect temporary huts in the jungles, where they carry on their operations. Pegu catechu is the ordinary commercial variety and is used in medicine; it is soluble in hot water, in alcohol, acetic acid, and the strong alkalies; it is astringent and leaves a sweetish taste in the mouth. The active ingredients of catechu are catechuic acid or catechin, and a peculiar variety of tannic acid, of which it contains about 54 per cent. Catechu has been extensively employed in the dyeing of browns, fawns, drabs, and olives. It is much used for coloring stout canvas. See GAMBIR.

CATECHUMENS, kǎt'ê-kū'měnz (Fr. catéchumène, Lat. catechumenus, Gk. κατηχούμενος, katéchoumenos, from кarηxeiv, katechein, to instruct orally). The appellation commonly given, in the early ages of the Christian Church, to those converted Jews and heathens who had not yet received baptism, but were undergoing a course of training and instruction preparatory to it. They had a place assigned them in the congregation, but were not permitted to be present at the dispensation of the Lord's Supper. In the apostolic age converts appear to have been at once admitted to the sacraments; but afterwards this ceased to be the case, and a period of probation was required. The catechumens were divided into different classes or grades, according to their proficiency. Those of the lower grade were not permitted to be present during the prayers of the congregation; and those only of the higher, and who had been declared fit to be baptized at the next administration of the ordinance, were permitted to witness the dispensation of the Lord's Supper. The term catechuwas afterwards employed to designate young members of the Christian Church who were receiving instruction to prepare them for confirmation or for the Lord's Supper, and is still often used in this sense. As the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles shows, from the earliest period of the Christian Church didactic instruction was given to the candidates for baptism. But an air of mystery was thrown around the sacraments, especially the eucharist, and the desire of the candidates excited by hints that there was something to be revealed. In the body of the baptized the sacraments were freely spoken of and the teaching relative to them was known as the 'Discipline of the Secret' (Arcani Disciplina). How much it amounted to is not now determinable, but probably it presented a full exposition of sacramental doctrine, and up to it the instructions of the catechumens led.

mens

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE. A term much used by Kant (q.v.) and his followers to designate what they consider to be the absolutely unconditional character of the demands that morality makes upon every reasonable being. If we wish to preserve health we must observe the laws of hygiene, but we may not wish to preserve health. The obligation of hygienic rules is thus conditional upon a certain wish which may or may not be cherished. But whether we wish it or not, we ought to respect another man's property. This obligation is thus conceived to be absolute. For a criticism of this view, see ETHICS.

comes

CATEGORY (Fr. catégorie, Lat. categoria, from Gk. karyopía, kategoria, category, charge, from Karnyopevei, kategoreuein, to accuse, from kará, kata, down + ȧyopɛvei, agoreuein, to declaim, from άyopá, agora, assembly, from ǎyew, agein, to lead). A philosophical term in use since the time of Aristotle. Aristotle used it to denote the highest classes under which all predi cates of propositions concerning things can be subsumed. He recognized ten such categories, viz. substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, situation, possession, action, and passivity. The Hindu philosopher Kavâda is said to have treated categories in such a way as to have attained a result very much like Aristotle's. (See Thomson's Laws of Thought, appendix by Max Müller.) The Stoics recognized four ontological categories-substance, attribute, states, and relations. Plotinus recognized five-being, The rest, motion, identity, and difference. Scholastics accepted Aristotle's classification without any other change than to Latinize the word category into predicamentum, whence our word predicament in the sense of 'plight. To be in a bad predicament is to be so circumstanced that the predicate of a judgment that adequately expresses one's situation falls under a bad class of predicates. Kant (q.v.) objected to Aristotle's classification as being uncritical, and proposed a new classification resting on the traditional classification of judgments. But Kant did more than give a new classification of categories. He introduced a new conception of their nature. They were for him a priori (q.v.) principles of synthesis, whereby thought brings into definite intelligible form the chaotic Kant recognized manifold elements of sense. four categories, those of quantity, quality, relation, and modality. Each of these was subdivided into three classes, with twelve resulting categories, viz. unity, plurality, totality; reality, negation, limitation; inherence and subsistence, causality and dependence, community; possibil ity and impossibility, existence and non-exist(See KANT.) ence, necessity and contingency. Hegel criticised Kant for doing what Kant criticised Aristotle for doing, and insisted that dialectic is the only method whereby the categories can be satisfactorily determined. (See DIALECHe also modified the Kantian view of TIC.)

categories by making them not so much forms imposed by thought on sense-contents, themselves devoid of such forms, as principles obtaining in the unitary world of thought and things. They have thus both an objective and a subjective significance. Hegel in this way embodied in his treatment of categories both the Aris

totelian realism and the Kantian idealism. As a result of his dialectic method, Hegel obtained three groups of categories-being, essence, and concrete thought (Begriff). Each of these has many subdivisions, so that the list he gives includes something like one hundred and fifty; but he does not claim absolute accuracy or exhaustiveness for the detailed results he obtains. J. S. Mill 'proposed as substitute for Aristotle's clas sification: (1) feelings, or states of consciousness; (2) the minds which experience those feelings; (3) bodies or external objects which excite certain of those feelings; (4) the succes sions and co-existences, the likenesses and unlikenesses, between feelings or states of consciousness. For Mill, categories were classes of

namable things. In recent times Ed. von Hartmann has written a detailed work on categories (Kategorienlehre, 1896). He defines a category as an unconscious a priori intellectual function of a definite sort. This is very much like Kant's view; but categories are not so much part of the innate constitution of each individual as they are the ways in which the impersonal reason acts in individuals. Thus in origin they are superpersonal, but as concrete functions they belong to the individualized group of functions. There are three great divisions-categories of sensation, of perception, and of thought. Each division is more or less subdivided. It will thus be seen that one's views of categories are determined by one's epistemological views. In accordance with the epistemological view developed in this work (see KNOWLEDGE, THEORY OF) a category may be defined as an intelligible relation between objects. Consult: Caird, Critical Philosophy of Immanuel Kant (New York, 1889); and Harris, Hegel's Logic (Chicago, 1890).

CATEL, kå'těl', CHARLES-SIMON (1773-1830). A French musician, born at Laigle. In 1787, he became accompanist of the Paris Ecole Royale de Chant (at which he had previously studied under Gossec), and upon its consolidation with the new Conservatory he was made professor of harmony. He later became an inspector of the Conservatory and in 1815 was elected to the Academy. Catel's most lasting work was his Traité d'harmonie (1802), an excellent textbook, and long a standard in France. Of his numerous compositions, only the operas Sémiramis (1802) and Les Bayadères (1810) are of any importance.

CATEL, kä'tel, FRANZ (1778-1856). A German painter, born in Berlin. He first gained a reputation by his drawings illustrating Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea (1799). He then went to Paris, and afterwards to Rome, where he associated with Overbeck, Cornelius, and Schadow, who were among his friends. He showed in his manner of painting the influence of Carstens. His landscapes are of Italian scenes, with architectural details in classic style, such as the "Ruins of Pæstum" and "The Appian Way."

CATE'NA (Lat., chain). A commentary composed of extracts from different authors, elucidating a text, especially the text of the Bible. The authors are generally Church fathers, and so the extracts partake of the nature of an inspired commentary. The composition of such a commentary dates from the Fourth Century. Prominent among the earliest compilers is Cassiodorus (c.480-580), and most famous is Thomas Aquinas (c.1226-74). Consult the English translation of the Catena Aurea on the Gospels by the latter (6 vols., Oxford, n. e., 1870). Many extracts from otherwise unknown works have thus been preserved.

CATENA (properly VINCENZO DI BIAGIO) (?-c.1531). A Venetian painter. He was a pupil of Giorgione and Giovanni Bellini, and a clever imitator of these and other masters. His works include chiefly religious pictures and portraits, the most important being "Knight Kneeling Before the Madonna" (London). Other specimens are "Madonna Between Saint Francis and Saint Jerome" (Venice Academy), and a fine portrait of one of the Fugger family (Berlin).

CATENARY (Lat. catenarius, from catena, a chain). The curve formed by a flexible, homogeneous, and inextensible cord hanging freely between two points of support, and acted on by no other force than gravity. If the cord is not homogeneous and the density varies, the cord hangs in a curve different in shape from the ordinary catenary; e. g. where the cord is such that the weight of any part of it is proportional to its horizontal projection, the curve is a parabola. The latter

CATENARY.

curve and the ordinary catenary are of importance in the theory of suspension bridges. The catenary is represented algebraically by the equation:

It possesses several remarkable properties, one of which is that its centre of gravity is lower than that of any other curve of equal perimeter, and with the same fixed points for its extremities. The catenary seems first to have attracted the attention of Galileo, who attributed to it a parabolic form. Joachim Jungius (1669) showed the error of this supposition, but was unable to determine the equation of the curve, a result accomplished by Leibnitz (1691). The curve was also elaborately investigated by Jakob Bernoulli. The bibliography of the subject is given in Brocard, Notes de bibliographie des courbes géométriques (Bar-le-Duc, 1897). For a discussion of the mechanical properties of the curve, consult: Price, Analytical Mechanics, Vol. I. (Oxford, 1868); and Minchin, Treatise on Statics (Oxford, 1880).

CAT'ENIP'ORA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat. catena, chain + porus, pore). A generic name given by Lamarck in 1816 to the chain coral, a peculiar tabulate coral found in a fossil state in the Silurian rocks, to which the name Halysites had already been applied by Fischer in 1806. For description, see HALYSITES.

CATERPILLAR. See BUTTERFLIES AND

MOTHS.

CATERPILLAR-HUNTER. A predaceous beetle of the family Carabidæ, and genus Calosoma, of which several species prey upon caterpillars, earthworms, etc. To this genus belong a considerable number of species, of which a common one (Calosoma scrutator) is illustrated on the colored Plate of INSECTS. See GROUNDBEETLE.

CATESBY, kāts bi, MARK (c.1679-1749). An English naturalist, born probably in London. He visited North America and the Bahamas in 1712-19, and afterwards published Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, with colored figures drawn and etched by himself (1722-26). These were the first drawings of North American animals to be published. He also published Hortus Britanno-Americanus (1737) and Migration of Birds (1747).

CATFISH (so called from the purring sound when the fish is taken from the water). One of

1. MAD TOM (Schilbeodes miurus).

2. GAFF-TOPSAIL CATFISH (Felichthys marinus). 3. SEA CATFISH (Galeichthys felis).

4. EUROPEAN CATFISH OR WELS (Silurus glanis).

5. STONE CATFISH (Noturus flavus).

6. BLACK BULLHEAD (Ameiurus melas).