CALIFORNIA. gant living, and easy-going morality in many The In Since the Civil War California has experienced a magnificent economic development. The completion of the Union Pacific Railroad furthered the prosperity of the State. Both from the Eastern States and from across the Pacific the tide of immigration flowed in steadily. So considerable, indeed, did the number of Chinese immigrants become, that between 1870 and 1890 the Chinese question dominated State politics and influenced national legislation. In the mining districts the Chinese occupied abandoned claims, or acted as cooks and menial servants. In the towns they performed various duties. Their stolid patience and their capacity for long and sustained work made them in one way ideal laborers for the development of a new country; but their extreme frugality and their willingness to work for a small wage made them formidable competitors of white labor. (See CHINESE IMMIGRATION.) 1878 and 1879 Denis Kearney (q.v.), a gifted agitator, taking advantage of the discontent prevailing among the lower classes of San Francisco, owing chiefly to the question of Chinese immigration, organized the Workingmen's Party, which for a short time controlled State politics and brought into being the present Constitution of California, with its many radical features. The conflict between the mining and agricultural interests over the utilization of the natural water-power of the State was removed in a great measure by prolonged and elaborate legislation on the subjects of mineral débris and drainage. In 1887 a comprehensive system of irrigation was begun, which has yielded great results. The California International Midwinter Exposition, held at San Francisco in 1894, served to illustrate the progress and prosperity of the State. April 18, 1906, an earthquake rocked the coast of California. San Francisco was almost entirely destroyed by the shock and by the fire, which broke out shortly after, and San José, Santa Rosa, and other coast towns were materially inBejured. See SAN FRANCISCO EARTHQUAKE. fore 1860 California was Democratic in national On politics. Since that date it has been Republican, with the exception of the years 1880 and 1892. In State elections California has changed from Democratic to Republican repeatedly on local issues. The following is a list of Governors of the State: MILITARY AND PROVISIONAL GOVERNORS. Col. Robert F. Stockton Peter H. Burnett.. STATE GOVERNORS. Democrat 1849-51 1851-52 1852-56 1856-58 1858-60 1800 1860-61 1861-63 1863-67 1867-71 1871-75 1875 1875-79 1879-83 1883-87 1887 1887-91 1891-95 1895-99 1899-1903 1903-07 ...1907 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States of North America, Vols. XIII-XIX., XXIX., XXX. (San Francisco, 1884-90); Muir, The Mountains of California (New York, 1894); Gold Mines and Mining in California (San Francisco, 1885); Hittell, History of California, 4 vols. (ib., 1885); Burnett, Recollections and Opinions of an Old Pioneer (New York, 1880); Van Dyke, Southern California (ib., 1886); Seward, The Chinese Immigration in its Social and Economic Aspects (ib., 1881); Vogdes, A Bibliography relating to the Geology, Palæontology, and Mineral Resources of California, with an additional list of miscellaneous publications on the country (Sacramento, 1896); J. W. Audubon, Audubon's Western Journal, 1849-50 (Cleveland, 1906); G. W. James, In and Out of the Old Missions (Boston, 1905); C. F. Holder, Life in the Open: Sport in Southern California (New York, 1906). An arm of the CALIFORNIA, GULF OF. Pacific, separating the peninsula of Lower California from the rest of Mexico (Map: Mexico, B 2). It was originally known as the Sea of Cortes, having been discovered under his auspices It is 700 miles in and explored by himself. length, and varies in width from 30 to nearly 150 miles. It receives at its upper end the Colorado, and from the east several streams, chief of which are the Altar, Sonora, Yaqui, and Mayo. Both shores are bordered by highlands broken by the river valleys on the east, but on the west presenting an almost unbroken mountain wall. The coast-line is irregular and forms numerous small bays. The gulf has a depth ranging from 600 feet near the head to over 6000 feet near its mouth, and contains many islands, particularly in the upper part, the largest of which are Angel de la Guarda and Tiburón. On its western shores are the ports of San Felipe, San José, and La Paz; on its eastern, those of Mazatlan and Guaymas. There are pearl-fisheries on the western coast. At CALIFORNIA, LOWER, or OLD (Sp. Baja or Vieja California). A peninsula in southwest North America, forming a Territory of Mexico (Map: Mexico, B 3). It extends from about latitude 22° 40′ to 32° 40′ N. It is bounded by California on the north, the Pacific on the west, and the Gulf of California and the Mexican State of Sonora on the east. Its total length is over 750 miles, while its width varies from about 30 to 140 miles. Area, 58,343 square miles. The surface is generally mountainous, the peninsula being practically an extension of the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range region. the centre is a plateau region interrupted by mountain peaks and short ranges, Santa Catalina, in the northern central part, attaining an altitude of over 10,000 feet. An eastern coast range borders the Gulf of California, and in places attains elevations considerably exceeding 6000 feet. The western coast range, bordering the Pacific, is less elevated and seldom exceeds 3500 feet in altitude. At the extreme south the peninsula terminates in an immense mountain mass, rising in San Lázaro to 8000 feet altitude. The coasts are considerably indented. but there are not many really good harbors. The principal islands are Angel de la Guarda, off the central eastern coast, and Cedros (Cerros), off the opposite western coast. Numerous smaller islands are scattered along the southeastern coast, and a few long, narrow islands fringe the southwestern coast. The climate and vegetation of the western portion resemble those of southern California. The climate is dry and warm, the rainfall in most of the region ranging from under 10 to 25 inches, which, with a high temperature, is a small amount. Few streams occur of any importance except as irrigators. They are most numerous in the southwest. In the southern part are considerable areas of uninhabitable land. Population, 1895, 42,245; 1900, 47,624. CALIFORNIA, SOUTHERN, UNIVERSITY OF. A Methodist Episcopal educational institution, situated at Los Angeles, California. The university was founded in 1880, and in 1906 had a productive endowment, amounting to $300,000; buildings and grounds valued at $200,000; an income of about $37,000; and a library of 5000 volumes and 3500 pamphlets. The faculty numbered 153, the students 995, of whom about 300 were in the preparatory school. The collegiate departments include liberal arts, medicine, dentistry, law, pharmacy, music, fine arts, and oratory. President, George F. Bovard, A.M., D.D. CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF. A leading American university, situated at Berkeley, California. The university was established in 1868, under the general provision for agricultural colleges made by the Congressional act of 1862, which united with it the College of California, chartered in 1860. Instruction was begun in Oakland in 1869, and the university was transferred to its present location in 1873. The government is vested in the Regents of the University of California, a corporation, consisting of the higher State officers, the Presidents of the State Agricultural Society, of the Mechanics' Institute of San Francisco, and of the University of California, all acting as members ex officio, and of sixteen other members appointed by the Governor of the State for sixteen years. The university is in effect a State institution, receiving various State appro VOL. IV. - 4. priations for specific purposes, and in addition receiving the benefits of a tax of 2 per cent. on each $100 of assessed valuation. From year to year the university receives about 56 per cent. of its income from the State, 17 per cent. from gifts, or from the income of former gifts, 11 per cent. from the United States, 9 per cent. from student fees, and the balance from miscellaneous Sources. The university comprises the following departments of instruction: In Berkeley, the colleges of Letters, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Commerce, Agriculture, Mechanics, Mining, Civil Engineering, and Chemistry; on Mount Hamilton, in Santa Clara County, the Lick Astronomical Department; in San Francisco, the California School of Design, Hastings College of the Law, College of Medicine, College of Dentistry, California College of Pharmacy. The College of Medicine was organized in 1873 by the absorption of the Toland Medical College. The College of Dentistry was organized in 1888. The Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton was founded in 1875 by James Lick, who devoted $700,000 to the purpose, among other things, of constructing "a telescope superior to and more powerful than any telescope ever made." The Department of Anthropology, organized primarily for research, conducts excavations in Egypt, Peru, and North America, and pursues linguistic and ethnological investigations. The University of California makes no charge to students resident in California for courses in the colleges of Letters, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Commerce, Agriculture, Mechanics, Mining, Civil Engineering, and Chemistry. The instruction in all the colleges is open to properly qualified persons, without distinction of sex. Students not residents of the State are charged a nominal fee for tuition. Since 1888, when its total student body numbered only 306, the university has grown very rapidly. In 1905 there were 4249 students enrolled in the University of California, of whom 1014 were in the College of Social Sciences, 215 in the College of Letters, 285 in the College of Mining, 189 in the College of Natural Sciences, 266 in the College of Mechanics, 243 in the California School of Design, 100 in the College of Medicine, and 62 in the College of Chemistry, 913 in the summer session, and 42 in the short course in agriculture. The undergraduates numbered 2469, the graduate students 243, omitting summer-session students. At the same time there were 508 professors, instructors, lecturers, and administrative officers, of whom 304 were in the academic department. Nearly onehalf of the university's students are women. relatively large proportion of the students pursue the general academic courses, as compared with the technical or professional courses. to be noted, furthermore, that a relatively large proportion choose courses which may be termed humanistic; those namely in languages, literature, history, and philosophy. Hardly more than 5 per cent. of the student body are non-residents of the State. A It is The university is beautifully situated on the lower slopes of the Berkeley Hills, overlooking San Francisco bay and the Golden Gate. The site comprises about 270 acres of land, rising at first in a gentle, and then in a bolder slope from a height of 200 feet above the sea level to one of over 900 feet. East of the campus, the chain of hills continues to rise 1000 feet higher. A permanent plan for the development of the grounds and buildings was secured through the aid of Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst, for many years a regent of the university. The plan designed by M. Emile Benard of Paris, winner of an international competition (held at Antwerp in 1898, and finally decided by vote in San Francisco in 1899), as developed by Mr. John Galen Howard, professor of architecture in the university and super vising architect, recognizes the possibilities of the site and gives the amplest scope for the development of the university. The first buildings erected under the permanent plan have been the Hearst Memorial Mining Building, costing $500,000; California Hall, a building sheltering the administrative offices and the departments of history and economics, and the Greek Theatre, an open-air auditorium seating 8000 people. Mr. Charles Franklin Doe of San Francisco in 1905 bequeathed $750,000 to the university for the erection of a library building. Mrs. John H. Boalt in 1906 gave $100,000 for a law building. Both structures are to be in accordance with the permanent plan. The present value of the buildings and grounds belonging to the University of California is (1906) $4,367,000. Its endowment funds aggregate $3,568,835, and its total income derived from all sources was for the year ending June 30, 1905 (omitting moneys received for endowment, or for buildings), $822,988. At the end of the year 1905 the library contained 156,000 volumes, and efforts are constantly being made to increase the number, since the university, separated as it is from the book centres of the East, stands in relatively greater need of books than would an Eastern university. The presidents of the university have been Henry Durant, Daniel C. Gilman, John LeConte, W. T. Reid, E. S. Holden, Horace Davis, Martin Kellogg, and Benjamin Ide Wheeler, Ph.D., LL.D., formerly professor of Greek and comparative philology in Cornell University, who became president in 1899. CALIFORNIA POPPY. See ESCHSCHOLT ΖΙΑ. CALIGULA. A tragedy by John Crowne, published in 1693 with a dedication to the Earl of Romney, and written in rhymed heroics. ily. But this ostentatious magnanimity was itself a disease, an unwholesome affectation, founded on no principle, or even humanity of heart, and co-existed with the most savage voluptuousness and lust. Consequently, when illness, the result of his vicious life, had weakened his faculties, the lower qualities of his nature obtained the complete mastery. In addition to the senseless prodigality with which he commenced his career-expending in one year the enormous wealth left by Tiberius, 720,000,000 sesterceshe began to manifest the most barbarous propensities. He banished or murdered his relatives, excepting his uncle Claudius and sister Drusilla (with whom he carried on incestuous intercourse); filled Rome with executions, confiscating the estates of his victims; amused himself, while dining, by having victims tortured and slain in his presence; and uttered the wish "that all the Roman people had but one neck, so that he might decapitate Rome at a blow!" To vie with Xerxes, he made a bridge of ships over the bay between Baia and Puteoli (a distance of three Roman miles and 600 paces), and celebrated the exploit by a costly banquet on the middle of the bridge, and by collecting on it great numbers of people, and causing them to be drowned. His favorite horse was stabled in a palace, fed at a marble manger with gilded oats, was made a member of the college of priests, and afterwards raised to the consulship. As a climax to all his absurdities, he declared himself a god, and had temples erected, and sacrifices offered to himself. At length a conspiracy was formed by the officers of his guards, and he was assassinated A.D. 41. His life is told by Suetonius. See also Baring-Gould, The Tragedy of the Cæsars (London, 1892). CALIGULA, BRIDGE OF. A so-called bridge prepared by Caligula to facilitate his passage from his palace on the Palatine Hills to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. In reality, the bridge' consisted of wooden passageways leading across the streets, from roof to roof of intervening buildings. CALIGULA, PALACE OF. The home of Caligula on the Palatine Hills overlooking the Forum. The palace was an extension of the palace of Tiberius, built over the site of the houses of Cicero and other rich men, and rising from the Nova Via to a height of 150 feet on substructures, to which the extant ruins belong. The superstructure has entirely disappeared. The best preserved portion of the remains is the crypt-porticus in which Caligula was murdered on January 24, a.d. 41. CALINGA, kȧ-lēn'gå. Also KALINGA. Luzon. See PHILIPPINES. A CALIGULA, GAIUS CÆSAR AUGUSTUS GERMANICUS (12-41). Emperor of Rome from A.D. 37 to 41. He was the youngest son of Germanicus (nephew of Tiberius) by Agrippina, and was born August 31, A.D. 12, at Antium, and was educated in the camp, where the soldiers gave him the nickname Caligula, from the military pagan Malayan Igorot people in northern central boots (caliga) which he wore. On the death of his brother Drusus, he was made augur in his stead; and on the death of Tiberius (A.D. 37), who, it was suspected, had received foul play at his hands, it was found that he had been appointed co-heir along with the grandson of Tiberius, but the Senate and the people allowed Caligula supreme and sole authority. In the beginning of his reign he appeared hardly likely to fulfill the threat of Tiberius, who had talked of educating Caligula "for the destruction of the Roman people." He was, to appearance, lavishly generous and merciful, pardoning even those who had been the instruments of cruelty against his own fam CALIPERS (corrupted from calibre; see CALIBRE). An instrument for measuring the diameter or thickness of objects. If a pair of ordinary dividers be applied to an object so that the extreme points of the diverging legs embrace it, the distance between the points of the two legs will be the exact thickness of the object, and this distance can be determined in the usual units of length by applying the points to a scale and reading off the space subtended by them. This is the simplest form of calipers. If the dividers have a graduated arc attached, so arranged that it records exactly the distance ments. The mechanical principle embodied in the construction is that of a screw in a fixed nut. An opening to receive the work to be measured is afforded by the backward movement of the screw, and the size of the opening is indicated by the graduations. The pitch of the screw, or distance between its threads, is forty to the inch in this particular calipers, and the graduations on the barrel are forty to the inch and are figured 0, 1, 2, etc., at every fourth division. As these graduations conform to the pitch of the screw, each division equals the longitudinal distance traversed by the screw in one complete revolution, and shows that the calipers has been opened or of an inch. The beveled edge of the thimble is graduated into twenty-five parts and is figured at every fifth division, 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, etc. Each division when coincident with the FIG. 3. VERNIER CALIPERS. 20 15 10 3 0 base-line of the divisions on the barrel indicates that the gauge-screw has made of a revolution and that the opening of the calipers has increased of or of an inch. Hence to read the calipers multiply the number of divisions visible on the scale of the barrel by 25, and add the number of divisions on the scale of the thimble from zero to the line coincident with the base-line of the graduations on the barrel. For example, as the calipers is set in the illustration, there are three whole divisions visible on the barrel. Multiplying this number by 25 and adding 5, the number of divisions registered on the scale of the thimble, the result is of an inch. There are also special forms of micrometer calipers for the accurate measurement of Vthreads on screws, bolts, etc., and calipers for measuring the depths and thickness of gear-teeth and other purposes. A common form of calipers, known as vernier calipers, is shown by Fig. 3. (See VERNIER.) See GAUGES. The CA'LIPH (Fr. calife, Ar. khalifa, successor, from khalafa, to succeed). The title of Mohammed's successors in temporal and spiritual power, from which the early Empire of Islam is known as the Caliphate. While the first impulse of conquest given to the Arabs by the new faith endured, the power of the caliphs was vast, covering the whole world of Islam; but with time the usual consequence followed the combining of spiritual authority with temporal dominion. The caliphate became the subject of factional strife and a prize for ambitious leaders, and rival dynasties broke Islam up into independent powers united only in enmity to the unbeliever. The first four caliphs (632-661), Abu Bekr, Omar, Othman, and Ali, were generally recognized as true successors to the spiritual authority of the Prophet, all being members of his immediate family, though under Ali, who was assassinated, there were insurrectionary movements. Ommiads (661-750) held a more doubtful title, but still one that was recognized. With the accession of the Abbassides the Mohammedan world was divided, a survivor of the Ommiads founding in Spain the emirate (later caliphate) of Cordova. This was never a true caliphate according to Mohammedan law, but it was one of the greatest in wealth and civilization of all the Mohammedan empires. The Abbasside dynasty saw other rivals arise, the Aglabites nd Edrisites in Africa, as well as minor claimants. It was the story of the feudal world everywhere-emirs seizing sovereign power whenever the opportunity offered. From the Tenth Century on, the Abbasside caliphs were mere creatures of the powerful Turkish guards, rashly organized by the Caliph Motassem (833-842). In 1258 another Motassem, the last Abbasside caliph, was put to death by Hulaku Khan (see MONGOL DYNASTIES; PERSIA). Nominal successors of the caliphs performed the spiritual functions of the office in Egypt as late as the Sixteenth Century, when the Turkish sultans reunited the spiritual and temporal headship of Islam in their own persons. There was a Shiite (q.v.) caliphate instituted in Persia in 1502. The first four caliphs had their capital at Medina; the fourteen Asiatic Ommiads made Damascus their seat of power; while Bagdad was that of the thirty-seven Abbassides. There was also established at Cairo in Egypt (909-1171) a dissenting caliphate, that of the Fatimites. Twenty-two Ommiads (756-1031) of the Spanish line ruled in Cordova. See ABBASSIDES; FATIMITES; OMMIADS; and separate articles on the greater caliphs. Consult, also: Sir William Muir, Annals of the Early Caliphate (London, 1883), and The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall (London, 1891), an abridgment of the Annals, with a continuation to the fall of the Abbassides; Weil, Geschichte der Chalifen (5 vols., Mannheim and Stuttgart, 1846-62); Syed Ameer Ali, A Short History of the Saracens (New York, 1899); S. Lane Poole, The Mohammedan Dynasties (London, 1894). CALIP/PIC CYCLE. See PERIOD. CAL'ISA'YA BARK. See CINCHONA. CALIS'TA. (1) The vengeful wife of Altamont and mistress of the 'gay' Lothario, in Rowe's Fair Penitent. The role was a great favorite with Eighteenth Century actresses. (2) The wife of Cleander in Massinger and Fletcher's Lover's Progress. She is possessed of an intense passion for Lysander, but still remains true to her husband. The character was largely suggested by Caliste, in Daudiguier's Lysandre et Caliste. (3) The lady-in-waiting and confidante of Queen Berengaria, in Scott's TalisShe assists in a silly and dangerous trick against Sir Kenneth, by which he is lured away from guarding the royal standard. man. CAL'ISTHENICS. See GYMNASTICS. CAL'IVER (from Fr. calibre, calibre, bore; see CALIBRE). A matchlock or firearm about midway in size and character between an arquebus (q.v.) and a musket, and small enough to be fired without a rest or support. It could be discharged much more rapidly than a musket, but did not do as much execution. It was introduced in the Sixteenth Century and received its name from the fact that the bore was of uniform calibre, so that the common stock of bullets for a company might fit all weapons. CALIXTINES, kå-liks tinz. A name given (1) to the conservative wing of the Hussites (q.v.) (from Lat. calix, cup, chalice), because they contended for lay communion in both kinds; (2) to the followers of Georg Calixtus (q.v.) in the latter half of the Seventeenth Century. CALIX'TUS. A name borne by three Popes. CALIXTUS I. Bishop of Rome from 219 to 223. Guido of He was born a slave.-CALIXTUS II. Vienne. Pope from 1119 to 1124. He was a son of the Count of Burgundy. He expelled the AntiPope Gregory from Rome in 1120, stormed the castle in which he took refuge, and made him a prisoner. He concluded with Henry V. of Germany the famous Concordat of Worms (1122), by which the long dispute over the question of investiture (q.v.) was adjusted.-CALIXTUS III. Alonzo de Borja or Borgia. Pope from 1455 to 1458. His leading idea was to institute a great crusade against the Turks, in which he failed. CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656). A German Lutheran theologian. He was born at Medelbye in Schleswig, and studied at Flensborg and Helmstädt. After traveling as an earnest student for four years in Germany, Holland, England, and France, where he made the acquaintance of the most learned men of his time, he returned to Helmstädt in 1613, and in the following year was appointed professor of theology. His genius, the depth of his knowledge, and his large experience of the world and of men, which he had acquired in his travels, developed in him a spirit of great tolerance toward all who held their religious opinions honestly, whatever these might be. Although his dissertations on the Holy Scripture, transubstantiation, communion in one kind, etc., are acknowledged by learned Catholics to be the most solid and admirable which have on ap been composed by Protestants against the dis- An CALKIN, ka'kin, JAMES (1786-1862). English organist and composer, born in London. He studied under Thomas Lyon and Dr. Crotch; was organist of the Regent Square Church, Gray's Inn Road, for thirty years, and was prominently identified with the Philharmonic Society in its early years, serving for some time as one of the directors. His compositions include a symphony for orchestra, an overture, several string quartets, and numerous pianoforte pieces. CALKING, kak'ing (probably OF. cauquer, to tread, from Lat. calcare, to tread in, from cala, heel). A process in which oakum is forced into the seams between the planks of a deck or the sides of a wooden ship in order to prevent the entrance of water. After the seams are spread, as much oakum is forced in as possible until they are nearly filled. They are then payed (i.e. filled up) with pitch, cement, or putty. Special chisel-shaped tools are used in calking, called calking-irons, making-irons, raising-irons, and reeming-irons. The edges of iron plates are also made water-tight by calking. In the case of flush edges or butts the calking-tool commonly straddles the seam; but when one plate laps another its edge is driven down by the tool against the under plate. CALL. A term often used in reference to various theological and ecclesiastical subjects. (1) The command or invitation to believe in Jesus Christ is designated the call of God, or the Gospel call. Calvinistic theologians make a |