ter the ministry, Calvin dissuaded the council from accepting him, on account of some peculiar opinions which he held. These were certain rationalistic views as to the authenticity and character of the Song of Solomon, the descent of Christ into hell, and also about election. After this, Castellio left Geneva for a while, but soon returning, he attacked the views of Calvin openly (see Calvin's letter to Farel, May 30, 1544), and was forced to leave the city. The two old friends, now declared enemies, did not spare each other henceforth. Castellio died in Basel December 29, 1563. (For his biography, consult F. Buisson, Paris, 1892.) The fate of Servetus drew forth an anonymous publication, attacking with keen logic and covert and ingenious sarcasm the Genevan doctrines. This publication was attributed by both Calvin and Beza to Castellio, and they replied to him in no measured terms, stigmatizing him as a "deceiver and vessel of Satan." One fact really disgraceful to Calvin in the controversy ought not to be passed over. Sunk in great poverty, Castellio was obliged, in his old age, to gather sticks on the banks of the Rhine at Basel, as a means of support. Calvin did not hesitate to accuse him of stealing the sticks. Such polemical truculence may well make us turn away in disgust and indignation.

The controversy with Bolsec belongs to a later period. Jerome Bolsec was originally a Carmelite monk, but had thrown aside the habit, and betaken himself to the practice of medicine in Geneva. He was led to attack Calvin's doctrine of predestination. As soon as Calvin heard of this, he gave him to understand that he was not at liberty to question the Genevan doctrine. He and others of the clergy dealt with him; but after repeated disputations, Bolsec was found incorrigible, and was sentenced to banishment from the city (December 25, 1551). Cast out of the theocratic community, he ultimately rejoined the Roman Catholic Church, and meanly revenged himself upon Calvin by writing his life in a spirit of detraction and slander (Lyons, 1577).

Of all these contests, however, the most memorable is that with Servetus. A melancholy interest surrounds the name of this great heretic, which the criminal tragedy of his death keeps ever fresh and vivid in the minds of all who hate intolerance, and who love truth more than dogmatism. The character of Servetus himself has little to do with this interest. He seems

to have been a vain, restless, and enthusias tie dreamer, rather than a calm and patient inquirer. In his very dreams, however, and the vague audacities of his speculation, there is a kind of simplicity and unconscious earnestness that wins sympathy. He had entered into various relations with Calvin even from the time

of his early residence in Paris; particularly, he had sent him various documents containing the views fully developed, in his work subsequently published under the title of Restitutio Christianismi (1553). Calvin never concealed his abhorrence of these views; and in a letter to Farel on February 13, 1546, he says: "Servetus lately wrote to me.

.

He takes it upon him to come hither, if it be agreeable to me, but I am unwilling to pledge my word for his safety, for if he shall come, I shall never permit him to depart alive, provided my authority be

of any avail." The history of his seizure and condemnation at Vienne by the Catholic authorities, and especially of Calvin's share in the correspondence which led to his seizure, is very complicated and obscure. It has been maintained that Calvin was the instigator, through a creature of his own, of the name of Trie, of the whole transaction; it is certain that he forwarded to the authorities, through Trie, private documents which Servetus had intrusted to him, with a view to the heretic's identification, and as materials for his condemnation. Servetus was sentenced to be burned, but effected his escape, and, after several months' wandering, he was found in Geneva. It was his intention to proceed to Italy, where he hoped his opinions might meet with some degree of toleration, and he arrived at Geneva on his way. This is the explanation of an event otherwise unaccountable. Having ventured to attend church, according to the common account, he was recognized, apprehended, and conveyed to prison by Calvin's order, just as he was about to leave the city. The particulars of his trial are full of interest, but too detailed to be given here. It lasted, with various interruptions, for two months. He attacked Calvin with the most foul epithets, and Calvin retorted with a virulence and foulness quite equal to his own. At length, on October 26, 1553, sentence was passed upon Servetus, condemning him to death by fire. Calvin used his influence to have the mode of death altered to decapitation, but without success. On the very next morning the sentence was put into execution. On an eminence, at some distance from the city, Servetus was fastened to a stake, surrounded by heaps of oak-wood and leaves, with his condemned book and the MS. he had sent to Calvin attached to his girdle; and, amid his agonizing cries, the fire was kindled, and the wretched man expiated his heresy in the flames. Whatever apologies may be urged for this memorable crime, it must remain a mournful and scandalous blot on the history of the Reformation. The disgrace of it has particularly attached to Calvin, and with much justice, from the special and unhappy relation which he bore to the whole transaction; but many of the other reformers are no less implicated in it. The wise Bullinger defended it, and even the gentle Melanchthon could see only cause for gratitude in the hideous tragedy. See SERVETUS.

After the execution of Servetus, and the ex

pulsion of the Libertines, two years later, Calvin's power in Geneva was firmly established, and he used it vigorously and beneficently for the defense of Protestantism throughout Europe. By the mediation of Beza, he made his influence felt in France in the great struggle there going on between the hierarchical party, with the Condé and Coligny. In 1561 his energies began Guises at its head, and the Protestants, led by to fail. He had long been suffering from bad health, but his strength of will and buoyancy of intellect sustained him amid all his bodily weakness. In the year now mentioned, his bad health greatly increased, and although he survived for more than two years, he never regained his vigor. He died in Geneva on May 27, 1564.

Very different estimates, it may be imagined, have been formed of Calvin's character, according to the point of view from which it is con

templated. None, however, can dispute his intellectual greatness, or the powerful services which he rendered to the cause of Protestantism. Stern in spirit and unyielding in will, he is never selfish or petty in his motives. Nowhere amiable, he is everywhere strong. Arbitrary and cruel when it suits him, he is yet heroic in his aims, and beneficent in the scope of his ambition. Earnest from the first, looking upon life as a serious reality, his moral purpose is always clear and definite-to live a life of duty, to shape circumstances to such divine ends as he apprehended, and, in whatever sphere he might be placed, to work out the glory of God.

He rendered a double service to Protestantism, which, apart from anything else, would have made his name illustrious; he systematized its doctrine and he organized its ecclesiastical discipline. He was at once the great theologian of the Reformation, and the founder of a new Church polity, which did more than all other influences together to consolidate the scattered forces of the Reformation and give them an enduring strength. As a religious teacher, as a social legislator, and as a writer, especially of the French language, then in process of formation, his fame is second to none in his age, and must always conspicuously adorn the history of civilization. Among Calvin's most important works are: Christianæ Religionis Institutio (1536); De Necessitate Reformandæ Ecclesiæ (1544); Commentaires sur la concordance ou harmonie des Evangélistes (1561); In Novum Testamentum Commentarii; In Libros Psalmorum Commentarii; In Librum Geneseos Commentarii. The first edition of Calvin's whole works is that of Amsterdam, 1671, in 9 vols., fol., but this has been superseded by the definitive and critical edition begun by J. W. Baum, E. Cunitz, and E. Reuss, and finished by Lobstein and Erichson (59 vols., Brunswick and Berlin, 18631900). Consult A. Erichson, Bibliographica Calviniana (Berlin, 1900). By the Calvin Translation Society, in Edinburgh, his works have been collected, translated into English, and issued in 51 vols., 1843-55. For his biography, consult: T. de Beza (Geneva, 1564; n. e. Paris, 1869), the original life, written a few weeks after Calvin's death; J. Bolsec (Lyons, 1577; n. e. 1875); and J. M. V. Audin (Paris, 1841; 6th ed. 1873), written from the Roman Catholic standpoint; P. Henry (3 vols., Hamburg, 1835-44), English translation abridged and altered by Stebbing (London, 1851); T. H. Dyer (London, 1850); F. Bungener (Paris, 1863, English translation Edinburgh, 1863); E. Staehelin (Elberfeld, 1863); A. Pierson (Amsterdam, 1883-91)—all of which are written from the Protestant point of view. A very valuable and impartial book from a Roman Catholic is, F. W. Kampschulte, Johann Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf (Leipzig, 1869-99). An exhaustive work is that of E. Doumergue, of which the first volume It contains appeared in Lausanne in 1899. many illustrations from original drawings, facsimiles, etc., and is the work of a lifetime. Consult also the biography of Calvin by Philip Schaff in his History of the Christian Church (New York, 1892), Vol. VII., pp. 257-844.

CALVINISM. The system of thought deriving its name from its greatest representative, John Calvin (1509-64). It has its starting-point

in the conception of the sovereignty of God. This is not merely His sole causality in the physical universe, but His priority, in particular, in the whole realm of the religious life. The fundamental element of the system was expressed by Schleiermacher, Die christliche Glaube (Sec. 32 ff.), and after him by the learned historian of the reformed theology, Schweizer, Die Glaubenslehre der evangelisch-reformirten Kirche (Sec. 23), as the feeling of the entire dependence of all that is and takes place upon God. This predestination, which has sometimes been seized upon as the distinguishing feature of the system, is a consequence of the true principle rather than that principle itself.

The historical origin of Calvinism goes far back of Calvin himself. It found its first prominent exponent in Augustine (q.v.), though its essential elements may be detected in the earliest history of the Church. It took its Augustinian form in consequence of the discussions of the Pelagian controversy (see PELAGIANISM), in which the point at issue was the originating source of conversion. Pelagius mantained that this was in the independent action of man, Augustine that it was in the prevenient grace of God, eliciting the human activity. From this germ developed the most distinctive features of Augustinianism, original sin, bondage of the will, and inability to be good, predestination, and the reference of all good to God alone. The tendency of the course of discussion in the Middle Ages was to weaken the Augustinian system, but it was restored by the Reformers, Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin. The latter incorporated it in his Institutes (final edition, 1559), which was the most perfect system of Christian doctrine that had ever been produced. From this work it went into the great Protestant confessions, the Heidelberg, French, Belgic, Synod of Dort (on occasion of the controversy with the Arminians, q.v.), and the remarkable series of English confessions, beginning with the Articles of the Church of England (first issued in 1552), embracing the Lambeth (1595) and the Irish (1615) articles, and concluding with the Westminster (1647). It was represented by a long series of divines, of whom Beza, Bullinger, Ames, Turretin, John Owen, Jonathan Edwards, and Charles Hodge (best recent statement of the system) may be mentioned. It is now the confessional theology of the Presbyterian and so-called 'Reformed' churches in all the Protestant nations. In New England, under the influence of Edwards and his pupils, there arose a school of 'consistent' Calvinists, who variously modified the details of the system, principally in consequence of a new psychology of the will and of virtue. But this has manifested its essential divergence from Calvinism by the further development through which it has gone.

The decisive element of the Calvinistic system is, then, its doctrine of God. With other Protestant systems, it is distinctly theistic and trinitarian. It lays emphasis upon the immutable nature of God, and upon His unchangeable attributes of justice and love, each equally sovereign. God's design in the creation of the world was the manifestation of His own glorious attributes, of which these are the chief. Accordingly, He forms in eternity the plan upon which he conducts both creation and the government

(5 vols., 1864-75); Le droit international théorique et pratique (4th ed., 1887-88); Manuel de droit international public et privé (3d ed., 1892). He formulated the so-called Calvo doctrine which provided that “the collection of pecuniary claims made by the citizens of one country against the government of another country should never be made by force." This principle became known also as the Drago doctrine from Dr. Luis Drago, Argentinian minister for foreign affairs who first advanced it in 1902 when the fleets of Great Britain, Germany, and Italy were blockading the Venezuelan coast to compel the payment of certain claims by President Castro. The Pan-American Congress at Rio Janeiro in August, 1906, submitted the question to the contemplated Hague Peace Conference.

CAL/VUS, GAIUS LICINIUS MACER (B.C. 8247). A Roman poet and orator. In the latter capacity he is often praised by Cicero (Brut., lxxxi., lxxxii., ss. 280-285; Ep. ad Fam. vii. 24; xv. 22). According to the ancients (Quint. X., s. 111; Catullus, 96; Propertius, ii. 19, 40; Ovid, Am., iii. 9, 61); his poems were full of wit and grace.

CAL'YCAN'THUS (from Gk. káλvg, kalyx, cup+åvoos, anthos, flower, referring to the cups enclosing the pistils). A genus of Calycantha ceæ, an order of plants allied to Rosaceæ. Only about six species are known. They are shrubs with opposite entire leaves, and are natives of North America and Japan. They have an aromatic fragrance and in the genus Calycanthus the bark and leaves possess it as well as the flowers. The bark has acquired the name of Carolina allspice, or American allspice. The flowers are of a chocolate or dull purple color. The four American species are found wild along the Alleghanies, in Pennsylvania, Virginia, etc., except Calycanthus occidentalis, with brown flowers, which grows in California only.

CAL/YDON (Gk. Kaλvdwv, Kalydon). An ancient city of Etolia, 7% miles fron the lonian Sea on the river Evenus. It was celebrated in Greek legend as the home of Meleager, Tydeus, and other heroes. In B.C. 391 it was in possession of Achæans, and was of strategic value in the war between Cæsar and Pompey. In B.C. 31 Augustus removed the inhabitants to Nicopolis, a city then founded to commemorate the vic tory of Actium. The site is generally believed to be at the Kastre of Kurtaga, on the river Phidharis. Consult Woodhouse, Etolia (Oxford, 1897).

CALYDON. A great forest, supposed to have once existed in the north of England and mentioned in Arthurian romance.

CAL'YDO'NIAN BOAR. Accordingly to a Greek myth, a certain ŒŒneus, King of Calydon, in Etolia, omitted a sacrifice to Artemis, whereupon the goddess, in her rage, sent into his fields a frightful boar, which committed great devastation. No one had the courage to hunt it except Meleager, the son of Eneus, who, calling to his help the bravest heroes of Greece-Theseus, Jason, Nestor, and others-pursued and slew the monster. This hunt is a favorite subject in Greek art, and was represented in the pediment of the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea by the great sculptor Scopas, some fragments of which are now in Athens. See MELEAGER.

CALYMMENE, kȧ-lim'ê-në (Gk. keкaλvμμévy, Lekalymmene, fem. perf. part. of KaλÚTTELY, kalyptein, to cover; refers to the thorax and shield). A genus of fossil trilobites characteristic of the Silurian system. It has a rather long body, of oval form, with a semicircular headshield and a thorax of 13 segments. The tailshield is lobed like the thorax, and is not clearly distinguishable from the latter. About 60 species of Calymmene have been described from the Silurian and Ordovician strata, and the largest have been found in the lower Devonian rocks. Calymmene blumenbachia and Calymmene senaria are prominent species.

CALYP'SO (Gk. Καλυψώ, Kalypso). In Grecian legend, a nymph, dwelling alone on a remote island, who rescued the shipwrecked Odysseus, and kept him with her seven years, promising him immortality, but unable to make him cease his longing to return to Ithaca. She finally yielded to a command of Zeus and allowed him to depart on a raft of his own building. Calypso is a somewhat late addition to the Odysseus story, and is merely a name outside of the Homeric poem. Her sons by Odysseus are entirely without connection with the general story.

CALYP'TRA (Gk. каλúπтра, kalyрtra, from KalÚTTE, kalyptein, to conceal). A term commonly applied to the enlarged and ruptured archegonium (female organ) of the true mosses, which is carried up as a loose hood, capping the spore-case. Its application is often extended, however, to include any development of the archegonium which follows fertilization. See MUSCI.

CA'LYX (Lat., Gk. káλvž, kalyx, cup of a flowers, the outer and sometimes the only set of flower, from KаλÚTTEL, kalyptein, to cover). In floral leaves. The individual parts are called sepals, and when these are not present the flower is said to be 'naked.' The sepals are usually green and leaf-like, and serve to protect the more delicate inner parts of the bud, but sometimes they are very much modified. See FLOWER.

CAM (Kelt.. crooked), or GRANTA. A river which rises in Essex, England, and is known as the Granta until it joins with the Rhee, 3 miles above Cambridge, to which city it gives its name. After a northeasterly course of about 40 miles through Cambridgeshire, it joins the Ouse, 31⁄2 miles above Ely. It is a favorite boating of the students of Cambridge University. river, famous in connection with the boat-races

CAM (dialectic form of Engl. comb; cf. Ger. Kamm, comb, Kammrad, cog-wheel). A revolving disk eccentrically mounted on a shaft and employed in mechanism to impart by its rotation a reciprocating motion to a rod or shaft. One of the common forms of cam is a heartshaped wheel mounted on a shaft as shown at A. The operation of this form of cam may be indicated by the lever B, pivoted at the centre and carrying at one end a rod, C, and at the other end a wheel, D, which has a rolling bearing against the face or edge of the cam. As the cam rotates, the wheel, D, will be raised and lowered, and this movement will, through the medium of the lever, B, raise and lower the rod, C, so as, for example, to open and close a valve. Cams are made in a great variety of shapes. By cutting teeth on the edge of the cam, A, and

A

CAM, käN, AUGUSTE NICOLAS (1822-). French sculptor, born in Paris. He was educated

in the atelier of Rude, and until about 1865 confined himself almost entirely to the representa tion of small animals. Afterwards, however, he departed from this genre and preferably represented combats between beasts of prey. His best-known works are: "Linnets Defending Their Nest Against the Rat" (1846); "Frogs Demand a King" (1851); "Tiger in Conflict with a Crocodile" (1870); "Rhinoceros Attacked by Tigers" (1884, Garden of the Tuileries); “Eagle and Vulture Wrangling Over the Carcass of a Bear" (1890).

CAM, kän', or CÃO, kouN, DIOGO. A Portuguese navigator of the Fifteenth Century, who continued the African discoveries inaugurated by Prince Henry. In voyages made in 1482-84 he sailed along the west coast of Africa as far as the Congo. He had sufficient influence with one of the Congo chiefs to induce him to permit the establishment of Christianity among his people. CAMACHO, kå-mä'chô. The unhappy bridegroom of Quiteria in Cervantes's Don Quixote. He is cozened out of his wife, after he has prepared a great feast in her honor.

CAMAJUANI, kä'må-Hwä'nê. A city of Cuba, in the Province of Santa Clara, about 20 miles from the northern coast of the island. It is connected by rail with Havana, Cardenas, and the coast. Population, in 1899, 5082 (municipal district, 14,495).

CAMAL'DOLITES. A religious order, founded in the vale of Camaldoli (Neo-Lat. Campus Madoli), near Arezzo, in the Apennines, in 1012, by Saint Romuald (c.9501027), a Benedictine monk, and a member of the family of the dukes of Ravenna. It soon spread through Italy. The brethren, who wear white garments, are, and have always been, characterized by the excessive rigidity of their monastic rule, yet on festival days they are allowed to eat fish and drink wine. The order has greatly declined, until now it has only six monasteries and about 200 members. Its greatest ornaments have been Gratian, the great canonical jurist of the Twelfth Century, and Pope Gregory XVI. (1831-46). There was an order of nuns of the name, but it has now only convents

in Rome and Florence. The former convent of Camaldoli, near Naples, is famous for the unsurpassed view of the Bay of Naples which its garden affords.

CAMALIG, kä'må-lēg'. An inland town of the Philippines, in the Province of Albay, Luzon. It lies 7 miles west of Albay, the capital, in a plain near the source of the Juaya River. Population, in 1903, 14,153.

CAMARA Y LIBERMOORE, kå-mäʼrá lē'bar-mo-o'ra, MANUEL DE LA (1836-). A Spanish naval officer. He was born in Malaga, graduated at the naval academy in San Fernando, and served in the Mexican campaign as staff officer of Admiral François Jurien de la Gravière, and later acted successively as lieutenant on the Vencedora and sailing master on the Villa de Madrid. He subsequently figured prominently in the campaign against Peru and Chile, and in the struggle with Cuba (1868-78), and, with the rank of captain, commanded a squadron in the Philippines. He was then appointed chief of the naval commission to the United States and London, and as vice-admiral commanded the

squadron dispatched to the Philippines during squadron, consisting of the Pelayo, Carlos V., the progress of the Spanish-American War. This Audaz, Osado, Proserpina, Rápido, Patriota, Buenos Aires, Isla de Panay, Colón, Cavadonga, and San Francisco, sailed from Cadiz, with 3000 soldiers, on June 16, 1898, and had already passed the Suez Canal en route for the PhilipCervera's fleet compelled it to return. pines, when the news of the destruction of

CAM'ARAL'ZAMAN. A prince in one of the tales of the Arabian Nights who fell in love with the Princess Badoura as soon as he caught sight of her.

CAMARGUE, kå'märg', ISLE DE LA. See BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE.

CAMARILLA, kä'må-rēЛlyà (Sp., little room, from Lat. camara, vault). As camara is used to designate the chamber of the King of Spain, the royal chamber, so camarilla is used to designate his private chamber or cabinet, the place where he receives his most intimate friends, courtiers, and sycophants. In the political language of modern Europe it has come to signify the influence exer

cised on the State by secret and unaccredited counselors, in opposition to the opinions of the legitimate Ministry. The camarilla is an old institution in Spain, but the word first began to be widely used in the time of Ferdinand VII.

CAMARINA, kä'må-rēʼnȧ (Gk. Kaμápira, Ka marina). A ruined city in Sicily, about five miles in circumference and about 100 miles southwest of Syracuse, not far from the sea. It is east of the Camarina (ancient Hipparis) where, on a sand-hill 100 feet high, now stands the Chapel of the Madonna di Camarina. It was founded by Syracuse B.C. 599, destroyed in 553 for rebellion, rebuilt by Hippocrates of Gela in 49? after the battle of the Helorus, again depopu lated in 484 by Gelon, who transferred the inhabitants to Syracuse, and again colonized from Gela in 461. In 405 Dionysius compelled the inhabitants to accompany him on his retreat, and it was destroyed by the Carthaginians. In 339 it was recolonized by Timoleon, and in 258 fell into the hands of the Romans, who sold most of the citizens into slavery. In A.D. 853 it was destroyed by the Saracens, who left