plants are free bloomers both in the wild and cultivated state. The heads are solitary on long peduncles, or corymbose. Usually the rays spread wide open and are conspicuously showy, white, yellow, or rose-purplish in tint, while the disk flowers are for the most part yellow.

The Chinese and Japanese species, Chrysanthemum Indicum and Chrysanthemum Sinense, are the prolific parents of the many forms now in cultivation in Europe and the United States. The diversity of color, shape, and size which has been developed in these flowers is remarkable. They range all the way from the pompon, or button form, to the huge head that measures nearly eight inches in diameter, and with ray florets three or four inches in length. In shape they are quilled or plain, double, semi-double, and single, with florets erect or reflexed. They are of nearly all colors and shades. The species are generally wanting in fragrance. The different varieties are obtained from seedlings. Chrysanthemums are generally grown by florists from cuttings and by amateurs in the garden by division. The plant succeeds in either clay or sand, providing the soil is rich and good cultivation is given. Disbudding is practiced to secure large well-formed flowers.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, or oxeye daisy, is a common weed in pastures throughout the Atlantic States. Another species, Chrysanthemum segetum, is the corn-marigold of Europe. Chrysanthemum frutescens, known in France as marguerite, and widely cultivated in that country for ornamental purposes, has found its way into other lands, and is grown either in pot culture or, where the climate will allow, in the open air. Consult: "Chrysanthemum," in Cornell University Agri. Exp. Sta. Bulletins 112, 136, 147 (Ithaca, 1896, 1897, 1898); Harrington,

The Chrysanthemum: its Culture for Professional

Growers and Amateurs (New York, 1905).

CHRYSAOR, kri-sa'ôr or kris'a-or (Lat., from Gk. Xpvoάwp). (1) The son of Poseidon and Medusa, in Greek legend. He sprang from his mother's head when she was decapitated by Perseus. (2) The name of Artegal's sword in Spenser's Faerie Queene.

CHRYSAROBIN, kris'å-rō'bin (Neo-Lat. chrysarobinum, from Gk. xpuoós, chrysos, gold + E.Ind. aroba, bark of leguminous trees). A yellow, odorless and tasteless crystalline powder, employed in the form of an ointment in the treatment of scaling skin diseases, particularly psoriasis. It is derived from Goa powder, a substance found in the wood of the Brazilian tree Andira araroba. Its chemical composition is CHO. It is almost insoluble in water, and slightly soluble in alcohol, but dissolves freely in ether, benzene, and chloroform.

CHRYSE CHORA, kri'sê kō'rå (Gk. Xpvon Xupa, Golden Land). A name given by the ancients to a part of India, comprising the present Burma and the northern part of Pegu. Compare the Sanskrit Suvarna-bhūmi.

CHRYSEIS, kri-se'is. In the Iliad, Astynome, the daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo at Chryse. She fell to the share of Agamemnon in the distribution of spoils during the Trojan War, and the ransom offered by her father was harshly refused by Agamemnon. Apollo, to punish the slight to his priest, sent a pestilence on

the Greek camp, which was averted only by the return of Chryseis to her father.

CHRYSELEPHANTINE, kris’el-ê-fantin (from Gk. Xpvoeλepártivos, chryselephantinos, of gold and ivory, from xpurós, chrysos, gold + élepávτivos, elephantinos, made of ivory, from Xépas, clephas, ivory, elephant). The art which prevailed among the Greeks of covering their statues with ivory and gold. The body of these figures was usually of wood over which a thin plating of ivory was fastened, and certain portions of the garments were made of gold. The hair, also, was of gold. These garments and the hair were usually chased. (See CHASING.) The modeled body of these statues belonged to the art of sculpture, while the chasing and ornamentation of the draperies and hair was called toreutic art. The statues were mainly of religious character and used for the ornamentation of temples. Winckelmann has calculated that about 100 statues of this kind are mentioned by the ancients. The colossal works executed by Phidias in Athens, in the time of Pericles, are the most famous of this class, the greatest being the Pallas of the Parthenon. It was 26 cubits high, and represented the goddess in armor, covered with a long robe. The famous Olympian Jupiter of Phidias, executed in the same materials, was also a world-wide wonder.

CHRYSES, kriséz. A priest of Apollo at Chryse, and father of Chryseis.

CHRYSIPPUS, kri-sip'pus (Lat., from Gk. Χρύσιππος) (c.280-207 B.C.). An eminent Stoic He came to philosopher of Soli in Cilicia. Athens when still a youth, and eagerly devoted himself to philosophical pursuits. His principal master was Cleanthes, the successor of Zeno, although he is said to have also studied Lacydes, and learned from them what were the under the academic teachers, Arcesilaus and objections urged by skeptics against the doctrines of the Stoics. He possessed an eager and facile mind, and enjoyed the reputation of being the keenest disputant of his time; yet his discourses were clever and subtle rather than seriously argumentative. His confidence in his own abilities was so great that, according to tradition, he told Cleanthes he desired to know only the principles of his system, the arguments he would find for himself; it was also his common practice to take at different times opposite sides of the same question, so that he furnished his opponents with the means of convicting him of inconsistency. Carneades (q.v.), his chief adversary, especially availed himself of this opportunity. In philosophy he was an expounder, not an originator. His literHe is said to have ary industry was great. written no fewer than 500 lines each day, and Diogenes Laërtius speaks of over 705 books by him. These were in the fields of philosophy proper, logic, physics, ethics, grammar, and interpretation of the poets; only fragments remain in the works of Plutarch, Elian, Cicero, Seneca, and Aulus Gellius. These were edited by Petersen, 1827; Ritter and Preller (Gotha, 188688). Consult: Baguet, De Chrysippi Vita, Doctrina et Reliquiis (Paris, 1882); Zeller, Philosophie der Griechen (Leipzig, 1881).

CHRYS'OBER'YL (from Lat. chrysoberyllus, from Gk. xpvooßhpvλos, golden beryl, from you. obs, chrysos, gold + ẞýpuλλos, beryllos, beryl). A

beryllium aluminate that crystallizes in the orthorhombic system. It has a vitreous lustre, and is found in various shades of green, and is sometimes red by transmitted light. The greenish varieties showing a chatoyant effect are called cat's-eye (q.v.), while opalescent specimens are named cymophane. Chrysoberyl was known to the ancients and was called Oriental chrysolite or Oriental topaz. It is found in Brazil, Ceylon, and in the Ural Mountains. A variety of an emerald-green color, but red by transmitted light, is called alexandrite, in honor of the Czar Alexander II. In the United States chrysoberyl occurs at Haddam, Conn., and at Norway, Stow, and several other localities in Maine. The largest transparent crystals are frequently cut into

gems.

CHRYS'OCOL'LA (Neo-Lat., from Gk. xpv

σókоa, chrysokolla, gold solder, from xpubs, chry sos, gold Kóλλa, kolla, glue). A hydrated copper silicate that is cryptocrystalline. It is shiny, has a vitreous lustre, and varies in color from green to bluish-green and turquoise blue. It is found in Cornwall, England; Hungary; Siberia; Australia; Chile; and, with other copper ores, in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Michigan, Arizona, and elsewhere in the United States. When found in sufficiently abundant quantities it is a valuable ore of copper, as it contains when pure 45 per cent. of copper oxide. The name chrysocolla was applied by the ancients to any green mineral, as malachite, containing copper and capable of being used as a pigment.

CHRYS'OLITE (from OF. crisolite, Fr. chrysolithe, from Lat. chrysolithos, Gk. xprobrios, chrysolithos, from xpvoós, chrysos, gold + Xoos, lithos, stone). A magnesium-iron silicate that crystallizes in the orthorhombic system. It is of a green color, varying from yellow to brown, with a vitreous lustre, and when cut is prized as a gem-stone, the gem varieties being known as olivin and peridot. Chrysolite is frequently found in lava as at Vesuvius, and in the volcanic rocks of Sicily, the Azores, the Hawaiian islands, and elsewhere; it is also a frequent and important rock constituent. In the United States it is found in the form of small, olive-green, pitted grains or pebbles, with garnet, in Arizona and New Mexico, where the grains are called "Job's tears" on account of their pitted appearance. It also occurs in basalt near Montreal, and elsewhere in Canada.

The so-called chrysolite of the jeweler is usually chrysoberyl, and the chrysolithus mentioned by Pliny is supposed to have been topaz. It is said that many of the so-called emeralds in European churches, as those of the "Three Magi" in the Cathedral of Cologne, are chrysolites, and not emeralds.

CHRYSOLOGUS, kri-solo-gus (Lat., from Gk. Xpvróλoyos, from Xpurbs, chrysos, gold Moyos, logos, speech: referring to his oratorical powers), PETER (406-450). Bishop of Ravenna in 433. He opposed Arianism and Eutychianism. About a hundred genuine sermons of his have come down to us, though there are 76 others attributed to him. They do not bear out his reputation for eloquence, but show an earnest and spiritually minded nature. His works are in Migne, Patrologia Latina, LII. There is a partial translation into German by M. Held (Kempfen, 1874). For his life, consult H. Dapper (Cologne, 1867) and F. V. Stablewski (Posen 1871).

VOL. IV. 47.

CHRYSOLORAS, kris'ô-lō'ras, MANUEL (?-1415). A Byzantine Greek scholar, born in the middle of the Fourteenth Century. He has the distinction of being the first important teacher of Greek of the Renaissance. Toward the end of the Fourteenth Century his scholarship became famous in Italy, so that Guarino da Verona went to Constantinople to learn Greek of him. About 1393 he was sent by the Byzantine Emperor to the West to ask assistance from Italy and England against the Turks. While on this mission he became known to many Italians, and in 1396, being invited by the Florentine Republic, he settled in Florence as a teacher of Greek literature. Within the next few years Chrysoloras had, among the most eminent of his pupils, Niccolò Niccoli, Leonardo Bruni, Manetti, and others.

he was teaching in Pavia, where he translated In 1400 he left Florence, and two years later Plato's Republic into Latin. During the next decade he seems to have traveled in France, Spain, and England, and to have been engaged in teaching Greek in a number of Italian cities. He was employed by Pope Gregory XII. in an attempt to bring about the union of the Greek with the Roman Church. He accompanied John XXIII. to the Council of Constance, and died while it was in progress, April 15, 1415.

His most important work was his Greek Grammar, first published in Venice in 1484, which was for many years the standard work for Greek Another inteaching in Italy and elsewhere. teresting work was his comparison of ancient and modern Rome (Zvykρiois malaιās kai veãç Púμns). Consult: Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterthums, I. (Berlin, 1895); Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, II. (London, 1877).

CHRYSOPRASE (from Lat. chrysoprasus, Gk. xpуobrpatos, chrysoprasos, from xpuoós, chrysos, gold + páσov, prason, leek). A variety of chalcedony, the apple-green color of which is due to the presence of a small quantity of nickel oxide. It is found in Silesia, Germany, and near Riddles, Oregon, where it occurs in nickel ore in veins over an inch thick; also in Tulare County, Cal. Chrysoprase was formerly much sought after as a gem-stone, but as it loses its color if kept in a warm place, it is no longer much prized. It is mentioned in the Bible, and by the ancients was described as a gem of a yellowish-green color, the identity of which has never been definitely established. Chrysoprase earth is the name given to an apple-green variety of pimelite from Silesia.

CHRYSOSTOM, kris'os-tom or kri-sostom (from Gk. Xpvobσтoμos, Chrysostomos, goldenmouthed, from xpuoós, chrysos, gold orbμa, stoma, mouth; so named from the splendor of his eloquence), JOHN, Saint (c.345-407). One of the greatest Fathers of the early Church. He was born in Antioch in A.D. 345 or 347. He came of a patrician family. His father, Secundus, died soon after Chrysostom's birth. His mother, Anthusa, was a pious woman, wholly devoted to her son, who grew up under her loving instructions into an earnest, gentle, and serious youth, passing through none of those wild, dark struggles with sinful passions which left an ineffaceable impress on the soul of Augustine, and gave a sombre coloring to his whole theology. He studied oratory under Libanius, a heathen rhetorician, as he at first intended to be a jurist, and soon excelled his

teacher; but, feeling called to give up worldly pursuits, he abandoned legal for biblical study. About 368 he was baptized and was ordained a reader. He practiced the strictest asceticism while still living at home, and on his mother's death, about 375, he retired to the desert around Antioch. After six years the ascetic severity of his life and studies brought on an illness which forced him to return to Antioch, where he was ordained deacon by Bishop Meletius in 381, and presbyter by Bishop Flavianus in 386. The eloquence, earnestness, and practical tone of his preaching excited the attention of Jews, heathens, and heretics, and secured for him the reputation of the chief orator of the Eastern Church. In 398 the eunuch Eutropius, minister of the Emperor Arcadius, who had been struck by the bold and brilliant preaching of Chrysostom, elevated him to the episcopate of Constantinople. Chrysostom immediately began to restrict the episcopal expenditure in which his predecessors had indulged, and bestowed so large a portion of his revenues on hospitals and other charities that he gained the surname of 'John the Almoner.' He also endeavored to reform the lives of the clergy, and sent missionaries into Scythia, Persia, Palestine, and other lands. His faithful discharge of his duties, especially in reproof of vices, excited the enmity of the Patriarch of Alexandria, of Theophilus, and of the Empress Eudoxia, who succeeded in deposing and banishing him from the capital (403). He was soon recalled, to be banished again shortly afterwards (404). He was taken during July and August to Nicæa, now Isnik, in Asia Minor, the place where the famous Nicene Council was held, and there, to his great disappointment, he learned that his place of banishment was to be Cucusus, a little town in the Armenian highlands, now called Gozene. It was a weary journey, but he finally arrived there. The Bishop of Cucusus received him kindly and the climate agreed with him. So his zeal was not abated. He labored for the conversion of the peoples in the neighborhood, and wrote the seventeen letters (or rather moral essays) to Olympias, to whom he also addressed a treatise on the proposition, "None can hurt the man who will not hurt himself." The Emperor, enraged by the general sympathy expressed toward Chrysostom by all true Christians, gave orders that he should be banished to the remote Pityus, on the northeast coast of the Black Sea at the foot of the Caucasus, a most desolate spot, and involving a journey of hundreds of miles on foot. It was at the very verge of the Eastern Roman Empire. The march was begun and for three months kept up, but when he reached the chapel of the martyr Basiliscus, about six miles from Comana, in Pontus, he could go no farther, and there died, September 14, 407, blessing God with his dying lips. The news of his death excited much sorrow among all pious Christians, for Chrysostom was a man who drew the hearts of his fellows after him; a lovable, manly Christian, hating lies, worldliness, hypocrisy, and all manner of untruthfulness, with that honest warmth of temper which all vigorous people relish. A sect sprang up after his death, or martyrdom as they conceived it, called Johannists, who refused to acknowledge his successors; nor did they return to the general communion till 438, when the Archbishop Proclus prevailed on the Emperor Theodosius II. to bring back the body of the saint

to Constantinople, where it was solemnly interred, the Emperor himself publicly imploring the pardon of heaven for the crime of his parents, Arcadius and Eudoxia. The Greek Church celebrates the festival of Chrysostom on November 13; the Roman, on January 27. In his Homilies (Thomas Aquinas said he would not give those on Saint Matthew in exchange for the whole city of Paris) Chrysostom displays superior powers of exegesis. In general, he rejects the allegorical system of interpretation, and adheres to the grammatical, basing his doctrines and sentiments on a rational apprehension of the letter of Scripture. He is, however, far from being a bibliolater. He recognized the presence of a human element in the Bible as well as a divine; and instead of attempting, by forced and artificial hypotheses, to reconcile what he thought irreconcilable in Scripture statements, he frankly admitted the existence of contradictions, and shaped his theory of inspiration accordingly. But his greatest and noblest excellence lay in that power, springing from the fervor and holiness of his heart, by which the consciences of the proud, the worldly, and the profligate were awakened, and all were made to feel the reality of the Gospel message. The surname 'Chrysostom' was first applied some time after his death, and, as it is supposed, by the Sixth Ecumenical Council in 680. Chrysostom's works are very numerous, and consist of, 1st, Homilies, on parts of Scripture and points of doctrine; 2d, Commentaries, on the whole Bible (part of which has perished); 3d, Epistles, addressed to various people; 4th, Treatises, on different subjects (such as Providence, the Priesthood, etc.); and 5th, Liturgies. Of these the most valuable, as well as the most studied, are the Homilies, which are held to be superior to everything else of the kind in ancient Christian literature.

The best Greek edition of Chrysostom's works is that by Henry Savil (8 vols., Eton, 1613); and the most complete Greek and Latin edition is that by Montfaucon (13 vols., Paris, 1718-38; republished in 1834-40). There is an English translation in the first series of the Nicene and PostNicene Fathers (London and New York, 1889-90). For his biography, consult: Stephens (3d ed., London, 1883); Bush (London, 1885); Chase (London, 1887); Marshal (Paris, 1898).

dent in Cervantes's Don Quixote. CHRYSOSTOME, kris'os-tom. An aged stu

CHRYSOTILE. A fibrous variety of serpentine (q.v.) which is extensively used for asbestos (q.v.).

CHRYS/OTYPE (from Gk. xpuσbτuños, chrysotypos, wrought of gold, from xpubs, chrysos, gold rúros, typos, impression). A photogra phic process invented by Sir John Herschel, which ferrous salt by the action of light, and the subdepends on the reduction of a ferric salt to a sequent precipitation of metallic gold on the ferrous salt. The process is now hardly ever used.

CHRZANOW, Kzhäʼnov. A town in the Austrian Crownland of Galicia, 27 miles westnorthwest of Cracow, the centre of an important mineral region. Lead, zinc, coal, and cadmium are mined. There is considerable trade in agricultural products. Population, in 1900, 10,200, mostly Poles.