and repeatedly, but vainly, endeavored to secure the establishment of a university in that city His works, written in German, French, and Polish, include the following: Prolegomena zur Historiosophie (1838); Gott und Palingenesie (1842); Du crédit et de la circulation (2d ed., 1847); Ojcze-Nasz (1848), a philosophical exposition of the Lord's Prayer.

CIEZA, thể-thủ. A town of Spain, in the Province of Murcia, situated on the left bank of the Segura, 26 miles northwest of Murcia (Map: Spain, E 3). It lies in a fertile region, amid olive-groves, and contains a large number of churches and monasteries. In its vicinity are the ruins of an old Roman fortress. Population, in 1900, 13,590.

CIEZA DE LEÓN, thê thả då lå-ōn', PEDRO DE (1518-60). A Spanish soldier and historian, born in Llerena. He accompanied Pizarro, and up to 1552 fought much and traveled widely. He wrote a Crónica del Perú (in four parts), a valuable authority on the geography and early history of Peru, as well as on Peruvian civilization under the Incas. Parts I. and II. of his narrative have been translated into English by Sir Clements R. Markham for the Hakluyt Society.

CIGAR, CIGARETTE. See TOBACCO.

CIGARETTE-BEETLE. A small ptinid beetle (Lasioderma serricorne), closely related to the death-watch, which attacks stored tobacco. It is a great pest in tobacco warehouses in both Europe and America. See TOBACCO PESTS.

CIGAR-FISH. See SCAD.

CIGNANI, chênyänề, CARLO, Count (16281719). An Italian painter, born in Bologna. He was the pupil of Francesco Albani, and, in the eyes of many critics, his equal. His first important works were two large paintings in the Palazzo Pubblico, representing "The Entrance of Pope Paul III. into Bologna" and the passage of Francis I. through the city. These were executed under the direction of Cardinal Farnese. But Cignani's masterpiece is the painting of the interior of the dome of the Chapel of the Madonna del Fuoco in the cathedral at Forlì, with the assumption of the Virgin as the subject. This is said to have taken him twenty years. He has been compared to Guido Reni and Carracci; and while he is not really the equal of these artists, his work is always rich in color and satisfactory in design. The women and children in his pictures are particularly charming.

CIGNAROLL, chếny-rīlê, GIAMBETTINO (1706-70). An Italian painter, born in Verona. He was a pupil of Balestra and Santo Prunati at Verona, and pursued further studies at Venice. His works, including altar-pieces at Pisa, Parma, and Verona, and "Madonna Enthroned, with Saints" (Museum of the Prado, Madrid), place him among the minor Veronese artists. He is better known as the founder of the Academy of Painting at Verona.

CIGOLI, chê-gō'lê, LUDOVICO CARDI DA (15591613). An Italian painter and architect. He was born in Cigoli, and was a pupil of Allessandro Allori and of Santo di Titi, but in style imitated Correggio, and is sometimes called the Correggio of Tuscany. He was employed by Pope Paul V. in various works in Rome, and painted for Saint Peter's a fresco which is now destroyed,

but which was considered to compare with those of Raphael. Cigoli was painter, sculptor, poet, musician, and architect. He decorated the city of Florence for the marriage of Henry IV. of France and Maria de' Medici. Some of his best works are: "Martyrdom of Saint Stephen,” Uffizi Gallery; "Saint Francis," Pitti Gallery; "Flight into Egypt;" "David with the Head of Goliath;" "Tobias;" and "The Marriage of Saint Catharine," in the Hermitage in Saint Petersburg.

CILIA OF PLANTS (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat. cilium, eyelid). The cilia of plant-cells are exceedingly delicate protoplasmic fibrils, whose rapid vibratile movement in the water propels the body. Some of the lowest unicellular algæ are provided with cilia, generally a pair for each cell, throughout the entire vegetative life of the organism. But in the higher algæ and some fungi this motile condition is only present during the reproductive periods, when asexual swarm-spores (zoospores, q.v.) are to be formed, or motile sex-cells (gametes) are developed. The ciliated cell is represented in groups above the algae and fungi (thallophytes) only by the motile sperms, characteristic of the mosses and ferns. It makes its last appearance in the cycads and certain other primitive gymnosperms.

Cilia are developed from cytoplasmic elements in the protoplasm (see CELL), and in some types are known to be formed by a definite protoplasmic body termed a 'blepharoplast' (q.v.), which is probably related to the structure generally called a 'centrosphere.'

a, Sperm of Alga; b, sperm of Chara; c, sperm of Marsilea; d, spore of Edogonium; e, sperm of fern; f, male cell of cycad.

CILICIA, si-lish'i-ȧ (Lat., from Gk. Kiλıkla, Kilikia, Assyr. Khilakku). An ancient country occupying the southeastern portion of Asia Minor. The Taurus range, which separated it from Cappadocia and Lycaonia, bounded it on the north, the Gulf of Issus and the Cilician Sea (between it and Cyprus) on the south, while the Amanus Mountains and Pamphylia bounded it respectively on the east and west. It was watered by the Pyramus, Sarus, and Calycadnus. The eastern portion of Cilicia was fertile in grain, wine, etc.; while the western and more mountainous portion furnished inexhaustible supplies of timber to the ancients. The passes into Syria are easy of access, but those through the Taurus are very difficult, the easiest being the 'Cilician Gates,' through which Cyrus the Younger

and Alexander the Great entered the country. The chief city was Tarsus.

The early inhabitants of Cilicia appear to have been of Semitic stock. At the time of the rise of the Persian monarchy, the country was ruled by the native dynasty of Syennesis. The Cilician princes became vassals of the Persian kings. In the period of Greek rule in the East, Cilicia became the seat of dreaded pirates. Having carried on their depredations too close to the shores of Italy, the Roman arms were turned against them, and they were subdued by Pompeius (B.C. 67), and Cilicia was made a Roman province, though the mountainous western portion was never thoroughly subjugated.

CILICIAN (si-lish'an) GATES. The ancient name of a pass through the Taurus from Cappadocia to Cilicia, referred to by Xenophon as exceedingly difficult. The city of Tyana was situated at the northern foot of the Taurus, at the Cappadocian opening of the pass.

CILLI, tsillê. The capital of a district in Styria, Austria, picturesquely situated amid hilly scenery on the Sann, 38 miles northeast of Laibach (Map: Austria, D 3). The town is of

great antiquity, and with the remains of its fortified walls and castle, gabled houses, a Roman esque church, Gothic chapel, and fourteenth-century parish church, retains a medieval aspect. The municipal museum contains numerous Roman antiquities and relics of the town's early history. It is an increasingly popular summer resort, owing to its warm river baths. Coal and iron mines, smelting furnaces, and chemical works are among its chief industrial establishments, and there is an extensive trade carried on in coal, iron, timber, cereals, cattle, leather, and wine. The Roman Claudia Celeja, mentioned by Pliny the Elder, was taken by the Emperor Claudius B.C. 15, and subsequently formed part of Aquileia. It was the capital of the Slavonian District of Zellia from 1146 to 1331, and from 1339 to 1456 of the county of Cilli. Population, in 1890, 6264; in 1900, 6743.

CIMA, che'mȧ, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, called DA CONEGLIANO (c.1460-1517). An Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. He is supposed to have been a pupil of Giovanni Bellini, and his pictures have the same religious feeling and serenity. His favorite subject was the 'Madonna,' with saints. Although a serious and conscientious artist, and the best draughtsman of the Bellini school, his work lacks originality, the types being taken from his master's.

CIMABUE, chế mả-booå, GIOVANNI (c.1240c.1302). The first great painter of the Revival in Italy. He was born in Florence and belonged to a noble family, but of his studies nothing definite is known. Vasari believes that he learned painting of some Byzantine artists established in Florence. While he certainly felt the Byzantine influence, then paramount in Italy, it has recently been discovered that he resided for a while in Rome (1272), which was the centre of an Italian artistic revival. (See CoSMATI.) Cimabue was the first Italian-at least, the first Tuscan--to give individual life, grace, and movement to his figures; to soften the lines of drap ery, while maintaining a dignity and religious feeling often absent from the work of his successor, Giotto. Two remarkable pictures in Florence are usually attributed to him, both of

them representing the Madonna and Child enthroned, attended by angels; one at Santa Maria Novella, the other in the Belle Arti. Vasari relates that the former excited so much admiration that King Charles of Anjou visited the artist's studio and the picture was carried in triumphal procession to the church. The National Gallery in London has a picture, and the Louvre in Paris has another, attributed credibly to this master; but they are not so important as those in Florence, or as the fifth picture of the same subject (a fresco) in Assisi. It was in his extensive series of frescoes in Saint Francis, Assisi, that Cimabue developed his powers to their fullest, having left behind him his stiff early manner of the Belle Arti work, and even his second Sienese manner of the Santa Maria Novella picture, for the softer and more classic style learned in Rome from such works as the San Clemente and other later frescoes. The Church of Saint Francis was the Mecca of early Italian painters. It is there that we can study the beginning of the Revival: the best Roman, Umbrian, and Tuscan painters of the second half of the thirteenth century covered both the Upper and Lower churches with an unparalleled left his best works, in the Upper Church. Accycle of religious compositions. Here Cimabue cording to Vasari, Cimabue was Giotto's master; but this, like so many of his statements about early artists, cannot be relied upon. Consult: Strzygowski, Cimabue und Rom (Vienna, 1888); Forbes-Robertson, "Cimabue" in Great Painters of Christendom (London, 1877).

CIMAROSA, che'må-ro'zå, DOMENICO (17491801). An Italian composer of operas, born as the son of a poor mason, at Aversa, near Naples. He studied music at the Conservatory of Santa Maria di Loreto, under Manna, Sacchini, Fenaroli, and Piccinni. His first opera, Le stravaganze del conte (1772), achieved fair success, and in two years he had a reputation in all the leading theatres of Italy, having composed half a dozen operas, and surpassing in popularity all composers then living, Paisiello and Mozart among In 1779 his L'Italiana in Londra was them. given in Rome, and other operas followed in rapid succession. He accepted a call to go to Saint Petersburg as composer, and conductor of the Italian opera, but the severe climate compelled him to leave this lucrative post after three years (1789-92). Vienna received him with distinguished honors, and Il matrimonio segreto, produced there, had remarkable success. In Naples it had an unprecedented run of sixty-seven nights in 1793. Of the operas written subsequently, the most famous was Le astuzie feminili (1794). In 1799 he joined a secret revolutionary society in Naples; the plot was discovered, and Cimarosa was sentenced to death, but this decree was commuted to exile. He died suddenly in Venice, and his friends accused the Government of poisoning him. However, an autopsy proved the allegation unfounded. In all, he wrote about eighty operas, of which number Il matrimonio still holds the stage. The greater number are comic operas, which picture the light-heartedness and gayety of life of the last quarter of the eighteenth century. In his serious operas, such as Gli Orazi e Curiazi and Artaserse, Cimarosa displays some power of characterization, coupled with original orchestral effects, masterly handling

of dramatic situations, and tragic force, fully equal to his rich vein of comedy.

CIM/BRI. An ancient warlike tribe, which, with the Teutones, were the first Germans that forced their way into the Roman territory. We hear of them first in B.C. 113, when they moved south through the German forests, joined with other northern tribes, and wandered through Noricum and Illyricum. The Romans sent against them the consul Papirius Carbo, but he met with a signal defeat at Noreia, and the road to Italy was left open to the enemy. Fortunately for Rome, the Cimbri chose to migrate to the Rhine, which they crossed, and proceeded southward to Gaul. By the year 109 they were again on the Roman boundaries, and Junius Silanus, who was sent against them, also suffered a defeat. His successors were no more fortunate, and the Romans met with a great disaster at Arausio (Orange) in 105, when they lost no fewer than 80,000 troops. The news of this disaster created a panic in Rome. The Constitution was disregarded, and Marius, the successful general in Africa, was made consul for five years, in the hope that he might crush the 'Gallic' invaders. While he was gathering great forces, the hordes of Cimbri and Teutones poured into northern Italy. The skillful generalship of Marius now put an end to their depredations. The Teutones were crushed at Aqua Sextia (Aix) in Gaul (B.c. 102), and in the following year a fearful battle was fought with the Cimbri in the Campi Raudii, near Vercellæ (Vercelli), and the entire nomad race was annihilated. The men were killed or captured,

and the women slew themselves and their children (B.c. 101). The name Cimbric Chersonese was given by the ancients to the peninsula of Jutland.

CIMICIDÆ, si-mis'i-de (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat. cimex, bug). The family of bugs represented by the bedbugs (genus Cimex) (q.v.). CIMICIFUGA, si'mi-sif'u-gå (Neo-Lat., from Lat. cimex, bug + fugare, to rout, from fugere, to flee), or BUGBANE. An herb of the order Ranunculaceæ. Black snakeroot or black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) is found in all the Northern United States, and is much used in rural districts as a medicine, chiefly in the form of a decoction. It contains a crystalline principle, two resins and tannin, and has strong alterative and sedative properties. It is sometimes used in cases of dyspepsia. bronchitis, amenorrhea, and certain other diseases. The medicinal dose of the officinal extract of cimicifuga is from one to five grains. See Plate of BLOODROOT, under SANGUINARIA,

CIMME'RIANS (Gk. Kuuépioi, Kimmerioi, from Heb. Gomer, clay, in allusion to their sub terranean huts; Assyr. Gimirrai, Arm. Gamir, Cappadocia). (1) In Homer, a mythical people, living in the far west, on the shores of the ocean, where the sun never shines and perpetual darkness reigns. (2) An historical people, whose country lay along the northern shore of the Black Sea, including the Tauric Chersonese. These latter at an early period made inroads into Asia Minor, and laid waste the country. There were presumably several such incursions, but the accounts are confused. It was probably in the seventh century B.C. that they were driven from their homes by the Scythians and overran Asia Minor. They on this occasion plundered

Sardis and destroyed Magnesia, but failed in an attempt on Ephesus, and were finally driven back by Alyattes of Lydia.

In

CIMOLITE, sim'ô-lit. See FULLER'S EARTH. CIMON, si'mon (Lat., from Gk. Kluwv, Kimōn) (?-B.C. 449). An Athenian commander, the son of Miltiades, the conqueror at Marathon. conjunction with Aristides, he was placed over the Athenian contingent to the allied fleet, which, under the supreme command of the Spartan Pausanias, continued the war against the Persians (B.C. 477). He effected the important conquest of Eïon, a town on the river Strymon, then garrisoned by the Persians. Later (c.466 B.C.), when commander-in-chief of the fleet, he encountered a Persian fleet of 350 ships at the river Eurymedon, destroyed or captured 200, and defeated the land forces on the same day. He succeeded likewise in driving the Persians from Thrace, Caria, and Lycia, and expended much of the money which he had obtained by the recovery of his patrimony in Thrace upon the improvement of the city of Athens. this period he appears to have been the most The hereditary influential of the Athenians. enemy of Persia, he made it his policy to advocate a close alliance with Sparta; and when the Helots revolted, he led an army upon two occasions to the support of the Spartan troops; but on the second occasion, having lost the dismissed. After his return to Athens, his policy confidence of his allies, he was ignominiously was opposed by the democracy, headed by PeriHe was recalled in the fifth year of his exile, and cles, who procured his banishment by ostracism. was instrumental in obtaining a five years' armistice between the Spartans and the Athenians. He died in the year B.C. 449, while besieging the Persian garrison of Citium in Cyprus.

At

chona, from the Countess del Chinchón, wife of CINCHONA, sin-kō'nå (Neo-Lat., prop. Chinthe Viceroy of Peru). An important genus of trees of the order Rubiaceæ. They yield the bark, so much valued in medicine, known as Peruvian bark, Jesuits' bark, china bark, quina, quinquina, cinchona bark, etc., from which the important alkaloids quinia or quinine (q.v.) and cinchonia or cinchonine (q.v.) are obtained. The properties of the alkaloids are astringent, tonic, antiperiodic, and febrifugal. The species of this genus are sometimes trees of considerable size; but, an after-growth springing from their roots when they have been felled, they often appear only as large shrubs, and some of them in the highest mountain regions in which they are found are low trees with stems only 8 or 10 feet in height. They exist naturally only in South America, between latitudes 20° S. and 10° N., and chiefly on the eastern slope of the second range of the Cordilleras. All the cinchonas, of which there are about fifty species, are evergreen trees, with laurel-like, entire, opposite leaves, stipules which soon fall off, and panicles of flowers which, in general appearance, are not unlike those of lilac or privet. The flowers are white, rose-colored, or purplish, and very fragrant. The calyx is small and five-toothed; the corolla tubular with a salver-shaped five-cleft limb. In the true cinchona, the capsule splits from the base upward.

Great difficulty has been found in determining

the species by which the different varieties of cinchona bark known in commerce are produced. The common commercial names are derived partly from the color of the barks, and partly from the districts in which they are produced, or the ports where they are shipped. It appears that calisaya bark, also called 'royal' or 'yellow' bark, one of the very best kinds-mostly shipped from Arica, Chile—is chiefly the produce of Cinchona calisaya, a large tree growing in hot mountain valleys of Bolivia and the south of Peru. Other kinds met with in the trade are crown, loxa, or pale bark, derived from Cinchona officinalis and its varieties; red bark, from Cinchona succirubra; Colombia bark, from Cinchona cordifolia; and pale bark from Cinchona nitida and Cinchona micrantha. Yellow bark is also produced by the variety ledgeriana of Cinchona calisaya. The varieties of this and Cinchona succirubra are the ones most met with in cultivation.

In South America the cutting and peeling of cinchona-trees is carried on by Indians, who go in parties, and pursue their occupation during the whole of the dry season. The trees were formerly felled as near the root as possible, that none of the bark might be lost. The bark, being stripped off, is carefully dried; the quilled form of the thinner bark is acquired in drying. The bark is made up into packages of various sizes, but averaging about 150 pounds weight, closely wrapped in woolen cloth, and afterwards in hides, to be conveyed on mules' backs to the towns. These packages are called 'drums' or 'seroons,' and are exported in this form. At present less wasteful methods are employed, and the bark is removed so as not to destroy the trees. Strips of bark are sometimes removed and the wounds covered with moss, thus increasing the total yield.

A number of spurious kinds of Peruvian or cinchona bark are either sent into the market separately, or are employed for adulterating the genuine kinds. They are bitter barks, and have, in greater or less degree, febrifugal properties, but are chemically and medicinally very different from true cinchona bark. They are produced by trees of genera very closely allied to Cinchona. While cinchona-trees have been becoming every year more scarce in their native regions, little attempt has been made to cultivate them there, notwithstanding the constantly increasing demand for the bark; the Dutch have recently made extensive plantations of them in Java, and the same has been done in British India, from seeds and plants obtained from South America by Mr.

Clements Markham. Cinchona is also cultivated

extensively in Jamaica, Japan, Ceylon, etc. For the cultivation of cinchona a good soil and open subsoil are necessary. It seems to thrive best at a considerable elevation above the sea, where the temperature ranges from 55° to 65° F. It will endure slight frost or a temperature of 100° where shaded. In a wild state, the bark often contains 5 per cent. or less of total alkaloids; but in cultivation, where only part of the bark is removed and the denuded area covered and kept moist, the young bark yields a much greater percentage of total alkaloids, a large proportion of which is quinine.

The Indians of Peru call the cinchona-trees 'kina,' whence are derived the names 'china,' 'quina,' etc. It is not certain that they knew

the use of the bark before the arrival of the Spaniards. It is a medicine of great value in the cure of intermittent fevers (q.v.), etc., and diseases attended with much febrile debility; also in certain forms of neuralgia (q.v.), and other diseases of the nervous system. It seems to have been first imported into Europe in 1639 by the Countess del Cinchón or Chinchón, the wife of the Viceroy of Peru, who had been cured of an obstinate intermittent fever by means of it. The Jesuit missionaries afterwards carried it to Rome, and distributed it through their several stations, and thus it acquired the name of 'Jesuits' bark.' Cardinal Juan de Lugo having been particularly active in recommending and distributing it, it was also known as 'Cardinal de Lugo's powder.' It attained great celebrity in Spain and Italy, being sold at high prices by the Jesuits, by whom it was lauded as an infallible remedy. Its mode of action not being well understood, and the cases to which it was applicable not well defined, it seems, in the first instance, to have been employed without due discrimination, and to have fallen very much into the hands of empirics. Falling into disuse in Europe, it was again brought into notice by Sir Robert Talbor, or Talbot, an Englishman, who brought it to England in 1671, and acquired great celebrity through the cure of intermittent fevers by means of it, and from whom Louis XIV. purchased his secret in 1682. A pound of bark at that time cost 100 louis d'or. Talbor seems to have had the acuteness to discern and systematically to avail himself of the healing virtues of the neglected Jesuits' bark, which he mixed with other substances, so as to conceal its taste and odor. Soon afterwards, both Morton and Sydenham, the most celebrated English physicians of their time, adopted the new remedy; and its use, from this period, gradually extended, both in England and France. As it came into general use, it became a most important article of export from Peru; but for a long time the value of the bark to be procured in New Granada (now Columbia) remained unknown, and in order to maintain a commercial monopoly, extraordinary methods were employed to prevent it from becoming known at a comparatively recent period of Spanish rule in America." The discovery of the alkaloids on which its properties chiefly depend was made early in the nineteenth century.

tree.

The chief active principles are the alkaloids, quinine, cinchonine (qq.v.), quinidine, cinchonidine, and quinamine. The relative proportion of the different alkaloids varies widely with the kind of bark and its age when taken from the Some species produce a large amount of quinine and little of other alkaloids, and vice versa. Cinchona bark itself has in later times fallen into comparative disuse, owing to the discovery of the alkaloid quinine, which is now extensively in use in medicine in the form of sulphate or disulphate of quinine, and is given in doses of from 1 to 20 grains in almost all the cases to which the bark was supposed to be applicable. For notes on the production, cultivation, etc., of cinchona, consult: Mueller, ExtraTropical Plants (Melbourne, 1895); Markham, Peruvian Bark (London, 1880); King, Manual of Cinchona Cultivation in India (Calcutta, 1876); Lambert, Description of the Genus Cin