it for themselves. The games continued to be held annually, and the tiers of wooden seats were made permanent and periodically renewed. This was distinguished, subsequently to the erection of the Flaminian and other circi, as the Circus Maximus. It was altered and enlarged at various times. According to different computations, it was capable of holding 150,000, 260,000, or 485,000 persons. Its extent also has been variously estimated. In the time of Julius Cæsar it was three stadia, or 1875 feet, long and one stadium, or 625 feet, wide, while the depth of the buildings surrounding the open space was half a stadium, or about 312 feet. The lower tiers of seats were, for the first time, built of stone in the time of Julius Cæsar; even after that the upper tiers were of wood, until the time of Domitian, when it was all of stone and marble, though its stage of greatest magnificence was reached under Trajan, who erected there a triumphal arch. The exterior was formed of three stories of arches, like the Coliseum, but built of white marble. Next in date came the Circus Flaminius, built in B.C. 221 in the Campus Martius, and a favorite meeting-place. It measured about 1000 by 400 feet. There was a Circus of Caligula and Nero, near the Vatican; a Circus of Hadrian near his mausoleum; a Stadium of Domitian at the Piazza Navona; a Circus in the Gardens of Heliogabalus; and a Circus of Maxentius on the Via Appia, two miles from the city. All these served as stonequarries down to the close of the Renaissance, so that few traces are left of any of them, except that of Maxentius, which is merely stripped of its surface decoration. Its construction is believed to have differed very little from that of the large Circus. Along the sides and at the curved end were ascending ranges of wooden or stone seats for the spectators, forming the cavea, divided into bands (three in the Circus Maximus) or mæniana by horizontal passages called ambulacra or præcinctiones. Each manianum was cut into cunei by numbered flights of steps, as in the theatre or amphitheatre, and each line of seats was numbered; but there were no individual seats, each person being allowed so much space by lines marked. The vaults and piers supporting the receding lines of seats were like those of the Coliseum.

The spina, a wall around which the charioteers drove, was in general highly decorated with such objects as statues, small temples, altars, etc. In the spina of the Circus Maximus, two large obelisks were erected by Augustus and Constantius. This circus was also distinguished by six towers, and by a canal or euripus, formed by Julius Caesar, to protect the spectators more effectually during the conflicts of wild beasts.

The circus was especially adapted for races— an amusement of which the Romans were passionately fond. The length of the race was seven circuits round the spina, and from ten to twenty races were run in each day. The number of chariots was usually four. The charioteers adopted different colors, representing the four seasons. Bets and party spirit ran high, and the victor received a substantial pecuniary reward at the end of the race. The athletic exercises, such as boxing and wrestling, which sometimes terminated fatally, were probably exhibited in the large open space between the carceres and the spina. The ludus Troia was a mock

conflict between young men on horseback. A regular battle was sometimes represented (pugna equestris et pedestris). By the formation of canals and the introduction of vessels, a naumachia, or sea-fight, was occasionally exhibited; but under the Empire this species of exhibition, as well as the venatio, was gradually transferred to the amphitheatre (q.v., and NAUMACHIA). In providing for the venatio, or hunting of wild beasts, vast sums of money were expended. Animals were procured from every available part of the Roman Empire, including Africa and Asia. The exhibition afforded not only an opportunity for the display of private munificence or ostentation, but attained the importance of a political engine, which none who aspired to popularity ventured to overlook. When Pompey opened his new theatre, he is said to have given public exhibitions in the circus for five days, during which time 500 lions and 20 elephants were destroyed.

There is an almost continuous tradition from the Roman days of various performances for the amusement of the populace, corresponding in many particulars to those of the Roman amphitheatre. (See ACROBAT; JUGGLER.) The modern circus, as a combination on a large scale of feats of skill and dexterity, may be traced to the performances given in London, from 1770 on, by Philip Astley, at first in the open air, and from 1780 in his amphitheatre. After his death, in 1814. the great equestrian Ducrow was the most prominent figure in the development of the circus; but during Astley's lifetime traveling circuses had become common in England, and permanent amphitheatres had been opened in several large towns. After Astley's, the most notable English circuses were Hengler's and Sanger's. American traditions are less full and clear, but the development seems to have begun about the same time. The earliest definite figure is Rickets, whose performance Gen. Washington is said to have witnessed in Philadelphia, in 1780. But it was not until about 1830 that exhibitions on anything like a large scale began to be given. Purdy, Welch & Co., at this date, and Van Amburgh a few years later, gave performances which for the time were of considerable excellence; in fact, greater merit was often shown in individual work than later, as less reliance could be placed upon the magnificence of the accessories. During the last forty years P. T. Barnum (q.v.), Bailey, Adam Forepaugh, and the Sells Brothers have all conducted upon a large scale circus companies that have toured the United States from end to end, using enormous canvas tents, and carrying with them in railway cars built for the purpose a band of performers and assistants numbering several hundred persons. As the circus never gives more than two performances (day and evening) in a town, except in the large cities, much ingenuity is practiced in moving from one place to another a show which may include a menagerie, a collection of freaks, trained animals, scores of horses, riders, acrobats, etc. The circus is the amusement event of the year in hundreds of small towns, and ordinary theatrical companies hesitate to play in a place where the circus is or has been recently, for it absorbs the attention and exhausts the pockets of the population. Even in New York City the patronage given to the Barnum & Bailey show during its yearly stay of a month has an

appreciable effect upon the receipts of the regular theatres, as the income at the Madison Square Garden for the two circus performances (day and evening) often amounts to $20,000. There are still a dozen or more small circus companies, playing in towns and villages, which use but one ring, a few acrobats, clowns, trapeze performers, and the trained horses, but in the cities and large towns nothing less than an enormous tent with two or three rings in which simultaneous shows' are given, a menagerie of wild animals, a herd of elephants, a collection of living freaks, and plenty of more or less dangerous feats will satisfy the popular appetite.

In recent years the clowns' jokes and capers have largely given way to pageants, chariot races, and feats of a perilous character, such as riding bicycles or automobiles down inclined planes at such speed that they turn one or more somersaults in the air or leap across gaps in the track. Such feats, known in circus phraseology as the "Dip of Death" or other thrilling title, sometimes end in the killing or maiming of the performers, which does not prevent the public from applauding them or the performers from making them more dangerous from year to year. Where the circus has a permanent home, as at the new Hippodrome in New York City, a building opened in 1905 and seating 6000 persons, effective spectacular ballets employing hundreds of dancers, sham battles, chariot and horse races, etc., are given with more elaborate scenery and costumes than can be carried around the country. The Wild West shows given in this country and in Europe by Buffalo Bill (William F. Cody) have much in common with the circus performance, but, as the name implies, they offer, as specialties, riding, shooting, and mimic Indian warfare, rather than acrobatic feats as their chief attractions. See ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN.

CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. A circus built in a part of the Campus Martius, called Prata Flaminia, by the Censor Caius Flaminius Nepos, who was killed in B.C. 217 at Lake Trasimenus. Its central position made it the frequent scene of public meetings and fairs; and in it, according to Sallust, took place Sulla's massacre of 4000 prisoners in B.C. 82. The open space of the circus was used as a rope-walk in the Middle Ages, and the arcades as lime-burners' kilns. All the remains have disappeared.

CIRENCESTER, siz'e-tèr, sis'e-ter, and sis'Iter (AS. Cirenceaster, Cyrenceastere). A markettown in Gloucestershire, England, on the Churn, a branch of the Thames, and on the Thames and Severn Canal, 17 miles southeast of Gloucester (Map: England, E 5). It has a large trade in agricultural produce, and is an important woolmarket. There are also two breweries. In the neighborhood are the well-known Royal Agricultural College, with a farm of over 450 acres, and Oakley Park, the seat of Earl Bathurst. Cirencester was the Roman Corineum, at the junction of the Fossway with branches of the Icnield and Ermin roads, and has traces of ancient walls two miles in circuit. Roman relics found

here, such as coins, urns, etc., form an interesting collection in the local museum. Rupert stormed Cirencester in 1642, but in 1646 it was given up to the Parliament. Population, in 1901, 7500.

CIRILLO, chê-rěl'lô, DOMENICO (c.1734-99). An Italian naturalist, born in Grugno. He was

early called to a chair of botany in Naples, afterwards accompanied Lady Walpole to France and England, and on his return to Naples was appointed professor of medicine. He enjoyed the friendship of Buffon, Diderot. D'Alembert, and Franklin; and when the French established the Parthenopean Republic in Naples, in 1799, he was chosen a representative and became president of the Legislative Commission. After the reëstablishment of the royal government he was sentenced to death, and, stubbornly refusing to ask for mercy, he was executed soon afterwards. His principal works are Fundamenta Botanica (1787), and Entomologia Neapolitana Specimen (1787).

CIRL - BUNTING, sẽrlbún'ting (Neo-Lat. cirlus, from It. zirlo, whistling, zirlare, to whistle, Sp. chirlar, to twitter). A small and very handsome European bunting (Emberiza cirlus), rare and local in England, often kept as a cage-bird, though its song is slight.

CIRPAN, cher'pan. A town of Eastern Rumelia, Bulgaria, on the tributary of the Maritza, 30 miles east of Philippopolis. It is situated in a fertile fruit-producing region, and is noted for its mineral springs. Population, in 1900, 11,760.

CIRQUE, sẽrk (Fr., circle). The name applied to basins occurring in mountainous regions at the head of narrow stream-valleys and gorges. They are characterized by precipitous walls, which curve around in a semicircle, forming a natural amphitheatre. Their origin may be traced to the erosive action of converging glaciers and streamlets. See CORRY.

CIRRHO'SIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. Kippbs, kirrhos, tawny). A pathological change of tissues, consisting of hardening due to increase of connective tissue. It may occur in lung, spleen, ovary, heart, stomach, and peritoneum, but is oftener found in kidney or liver. Cirrhosis of the kidney (chronic diffuse inflammation of the kidney, or chronic interstitial nephritis) is a chronic inflammation of the connective-tissue elements of the kidney. The kidney is usually small, contracted, and nodular, the capsule adherent; the cortex is thin and red, and may contain small cysts. Microscopically, there is seen to be a marked increase in the interstitial connective tissue, with degeneration and atrophy of the functionating elements, the renal tubules, and the glomeruli. In the tubules the epithelium is apt to be granular, fatty, and atrophied. In the glomeruli the lesions vary from thickening of the capsules and of the capillary walls with hyaline degeneration, to complete atrophy and disappearance of the glomeruli. (See BRIGHT'S DISEASE.) Cirrhosis of the liver, or chronic interstitial hepatitis, consists in a greater or less increase in the connective tissue or supportive elements of the liver, at the expense of the fune tionating tissue. The new connective tissue usually follows the line of the old connective tissue, but may penetrate the lobules. It is often irregular in its distribution, being more abundant in one part of the liver than in another. During the early stages of the production of connective tissue, the liver tends to enlarge, somecirrhosis). Later, the connective tissue tends times weighing eight to ten pounds (hypertrophic to contract, and the liver becomes smaller than normal (atrophic cirrhosis). The surfaces of the large livers are usually smooth, while the

irregular contraction of the connective tissue in the atrophic livers squeezes the lobules, and usually results in nodular surfaces. The new connective tissue, besides causing atrophy of the liver-cells, often compresses branches of the portal or hepatic veins and of the gall-ducts, thus interfering with the nutrition of the liver-cells, and causing stoppage of the bile-current. Dependent upon the condition in the liver and the consequent disturbance of the portal circulation, various secondary lesions occur, such as dilatation of the veins, accumulation of fluid in the abdomen, swelling of the feet and legs, etc. Increase in the connective-tissue elements of the kidney (cirrhosis of the kidney) and of the walls of the blood-vessels is frequently associated with cirrhosis of the liver, probably dependent upon the same obscure cause. See LIVER; ALCOHOL,

ISM; DROPSY.

CIR/RHUS. A tendril (q.v.).

CIR'RIPE'DIA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat. cirrus, a lock, curl + pes, foot). An order of small marine crustaceans (barnacles), characterized by their fixed life. The body is indistinctly segmented, attached by the head-end, and surrounded by a mantle. Limbs of the trunk, six pairs (rarely less or more), biramous, long and tendril-like. Circulatory system wanting. The species are mostly hermaphroditic. The cirripedia are closely allied to the Entomostraca. See BARNACLE, and Plate of BARNACLES. For a description of fossil forms, see CRUSTACEA.

CIR/RUS. See CLOUD.

CIRTA, sir'tà (Lat., from Gk. Kipra, Kirta, Phon. kereth, Heb. qiryat, city). A city of northern Africa, the capital of the Numidian prince Syphax, and an important fortress of Masinissa and his successors. Later it became a flourishing Roman colony. It was much injured by the troops of Maxentius in A.D. 310, but was restored by Constantine and named Constantina. The modern Constantine occupies its site. CISALPINE REPUBLIC (Lat. cisalpinus, from cis, on this side + Alpes, Alps). The name given to the State constituted in 1797 by the union of the Cispadane and Transpadane republics (respectively south and north of the Po, Lat. Padus), which had been established by Bonaparte in May, 1796, after the battle of Lodi. The Cisalpine Republic embraced Lombardy, Mantua, Bergamo, Brescia, Cremona, Verona, and Rovigo, the Duchy of Modena, the Principality of Massa and Carrara, and the three legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romagna. The Republic had a territory of more than 16,000 square miles, and a population of 3,500,000. Milan was the seat of the Government, or Directory. The Legislative Assembly was composed of a Senate of 80 members, and a Great Council of 160. The army consisted of 20,000 French troops, paid by the Republic. A more intimate connection was formed in 1798 between the new Republic and France, by an offensive and defensive alliance. The Republic was dissolved for a time in 1799 by the victories of the Russians and Austrians, but was restored by Bonaparte, after the victory of Marengo (1800), with some constitutional modifications and an increase of territory. In 1802 it took the name of the 'Italian Republic,' and chose Bonaparte for its President. A deputation from the Republic, in 1805, conferred on the Emperor Napoleon the title of King of Italy-after

which it formed the Kingdom of Italy till 1814. See ITALY; NAPOLEON 1.

CISCO. The name of two separate species of whitefish: (1) the lake moon-eye (Argyrosomus Hoyi) of the Great Lakes-the smallest and most brightly colored of the whitefish; (2) the lake or Michigan herring (Argyrosomus Artedi), occupying lakes in shallow places from Wisconsin to Alaska. Both are excellent food-fish. See WHITE

FISH.

CISLEITHANIA, sis'li-thāʼnĬ-à or -tå'nê-å (Neo-Lat., from cis, on this side + Ger. Leitha, a little river which forms part of the boundary between Austria and Hungary), or CISLEITHAN AUSTRIA. A name applied to that portion of the Reichsrat in Vienna. Austro-Hungarian monarchy represented in the 000 square miles, and had a population of 26,150,It contains nearly 116,708 in 1900, or considerably more than half of the total population of Austria-Hungary.

CISPADANE (sis-pā'dān) REPUBLIC. A republican State of Italy, which comprised Modena, Reggio, Ferrara, and Bologna. It was merged in the Cisalpine Republic (q.v.) in 1797. It took its name from the Padus or Po, which divided it from the Transpadane Republic. It was established in 1796 by Napoleon I. after the battle of Lodi.

CISPLATINE (sis-plă'tin) REPUBLIC (Sp. República Cisplatina, from Lat. cis, on this side Sp. Plata, the river dividing Uruguay from the Argentine Republic). The name of the Republic of Uruguay from 1828 to 1831. It had previously belonged to Brazil, and had borne the name of the Cisplatine Province.

CISSAM PELOS (Gk. kiσσáμmeλos, kissampelos, from Koobs, kissos, ivy + aμnελos, ampelos, vine). A genus of plants of the natural order Menispermaceæ, of which some of the species possess valuable medicinal properties, particufarly Cissampelos Pareira, a native of the West Indies and South America, the root of which was formerly thought to be that called Pareira brava. The plant is called velvetleaf in the West Indies, from the peculiar and beautiful appearance of the leaves. It is a climbing shrub, with round leaves, racemes of small, yellow flowers, and small, hairy, scarlet berries. The root of Cissampelos appears in commerce in pieces of 2 or 3 feet long, varying from 2 to 4 inch in diameter, tough, but so porous that air can be blown from end to end of it. It is dark-brown externally and light-yellow within. It has a sweetish, afterwards nauseous, taste; is used as a tonic and diuretic, appears to exercise a specific influence over the mucous membrane of the urinary passages, and is administered with advantage in chronic inflammation of the bladder. Formerly this plant was supposed to yield all of the Pareira brava on the market; but now it is rare, its place being supplied by the roots of Chonodendron tomentosum, a plant of the same order found in Brazil, Peru, and elsewhere in South America. The root of this species, as found in the market, is of a grayish color, palebrown within, and with a waxy appearance when freshly cut. The roots vary from 1⁄2 inch to 3 inches in diameter, are longitudinally furrowed, and in sections show concentric markings. Another kind is also found in the American market, which greatly resembles Cissampelos Pareira, but its exact botanical origin is not known.

The properties of all are the same. They contain a bitter extractive and an alkaloid, pelosine or cissampeline, said to be identical with berberine and buxine. Pareira brava was introduced into European medicine in the latter part of the seventeenth century. In Brazil, in addition to its other uses, it is employed as a remedy for snake-bites, a vinous infusion being taken internally, while the bruised leaves are bound over the wound.

CISSEY, sê'sâ', ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT (1811-82). A French general. He was born in Paris, and was educated at the school of Saint Cyr. Having served with distinction in Algeria and the Crimea, he was promoted in 1863 to be general of a division. He fought in the FrancoGerman War, and in the contest against the Commune of 1871. After being elected to the National Assembly (February, 1871), he was Minister of War from 1871 to 1873 and in 187476. He was elected life Senator in 1875.

CIS'SOID (Gk. Koσoεidhs, kissocides, like ivy, from Koobs, kissos, ivy + eidos, eidos, shape, form). An ivy-like curve, first studied by Diocles, about B.C. 180. The commentary of Diocles sets forth the definition of the cissoid,

(1661); it is equal to three times the area of the generating circle. If, instead of the circle, any other curve is taken as the generatrix, the resulting curve is called cissoidal. The cissoid is the pedal (see CURVES) of a parabola with respect to the vertex. This curve has been used in solving two famous problems of antiquity-the construction of two geometric means between two seg ments, and the duplication of the cube (q.v.). Consult: Klein. Vorträge über ausgewählte Fragen der Elementargeometrie (Leipzig, 1895); translated by Beman and Smith, Famous Problems of Elementary Geometry (Boston, 1894); Gow, History of Greek Mathematics (Cambridge, 1884).

CIST, HENRY MARTYN (1839-1902). An American lawyer and soldier, born in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1858 he graduated at Farmer's (afterwards known as Belmont) College. He became a member of the Sixth Ohio Volunteers upon the outbreak of the Civil War, and advanced to the rank Cumberland, in which capacity he was attached of assistant adjutant in the Department of the to the staff of Generals Rosecrans and Thomas. He was corresponding secretary of the Society of the Army of the Cumberland from 1869 to 1892. In addition to twenty annual reports of the so

from the figure. The ordinates mm', nn' are equidistant from the centre c, and the line Om cuts nn' in P', a point on the cissoid. A more

general construction is the following: Draw any

line OR from 0 to XR, and take RP = OS. Then P will be a point on the curve. The Cartesian equation of this curve is y2 =- and the 2a-x polar equation is r = 2a tan sin 0. (See ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.) The curve passes through the points (a, a) and (a,—a), is symmetric with respect to the X-axis, and lies between the Yaxis (0) and the asymptote XR, whose equation is a = 2a; the origin is a cusp of the first species. (See CURVES.) Huygens expressed the length of an are of this curve limited by any two points (rectified it) in 1651. The area of the space included between the two branches and their asymptote was first given by Fermat

wrote Life of General George H. Thomas (in collaboration with Donn Piatt) and The Army of the Cumberland (1882).

CIST-BURIAL (Welsh cist, from Lat. cista, Gk. Klorη, kistē, chest). A mode of disposing of the dead among various peoples, chief among whom are certain American aborigines. A cell or box of stone slabs was placed in a shallow grave, and in this the remains were placed, usually folded into the smallest possible compass, sometimes denuded of flesh, together with the mortuary sacrifices; over these a broad slab was laid, and earth was spread above, sometimes in a mound. See ARCHEOLOGY, AMERICAN; MAN, SCIENCE OF; MORTUARY CUSTOMS.

CISTER CIANS. A branch of the Benedictine (q.v.) Order; also known as Bernardines, from their most famous member. It takes its name from the mother house of Cîteaux (Lat. Cistercium), near Dijon, which was founded in 1098 by Saint Robert, Abbot of Molesme. He transferred twenty of his most zealous monks from the latter house, on account of the unhealthfulness of its site, and established a small and poor monastery at Cîteaux. (The present building dates from the eighteenth century; it was confiscated at the Revolution, but recovered to

pious uses in 1846, since when it has been used

as a reformatory.) Robert's successor, Alberic, obtained from Pope Paschal II. a confirmation of the new foundation, and drew up statutes which insisted on a strict observance of the Benedictine rule. A brown habit was at first worn; soon, however, perhaps to mark a contrast with the Cluniac Congregation, this was changed to white, with a brown, and later a black scapu lar. Alberic died in 1109, and was succeeded by Stephen Harding, an Englishman. He pressed the rule of poverty to the utmost, applying it to the community as much as to the individual members. This extreme strictness diminished the number of postulants, so that the future looked unpromising, when in 1112 Saint Bernard (q.v.), with thirty companions, joined the struggling

community. The numbers now began to increase, and Stephen was enabled within two years to found four other abbeys-La Ferté, Pontigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond. Fifty years later the Order numbered 343 abbeys, and by the middle of the fourteenth century more than 700-in France, Germany, England, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Norway, and Sweden. The austere and holy life of the early Cistercians won them universal respect, and a vast influence throughout Christendom. They produced few great writers, but were indefatigable in collecting and copying manuscripts for their libraries. Practical matters, however, were not neglected in their zeal for literature and art; in England the Order was a main cause of the growth of the wool industry. After this Golden Age followed a period of decline. The rule was less strictly observed; many disorders crept in toward the end of the fourteenth century, and by the middle of the fifteenth the Order had split into several congregations. The growth of luxury, the spread of the mendicant orders, and the practice of granting abbeys in commendam (see ABBOT) all contributed to its decay. Among the more noteworthy offshoots of the Cistercians were the Feuillants and the Trappists (q.v.), and the Nuns of Port Royal in France. Before the Reformation, England had 75 Cistercian monasteries and 25 nunneries. Among the English abbeys were Furness, Fountains, Woburn, Tintern, Kirkstall, and Rievaulx. Between internal decline and the hostility of various governments in modern times, the great majority of the Cistercian houses have ceased to exist. They are represented by a few in Belgium and Austria, one in England (at Mount Saint Bernard, near Leicester), and two in Ireland.

The influence of the Cistercians in art is sufficiently important to call for a separate treatment. When Saint Bernard directed the policy of the Order, he used it to carry out, among other things, his ideas as to the function of the fine arts. He wrote and preached against the current artistic extravagances in the construction, decoration, and furnishing of churches. As the Order spread throughout the world during the twelfth century it carried with it these ideas, some of which (for example, the invention of a single low, wooden bell-tower) were even expressed in the constitutions of the Order. Cistercian artists, therefore, were architects, and of the constructive rather than of the decorative school.

This is the only Order that can boast of having consistently carried out an æsthetic ideal and had a style of its own, similar in whatever land it appears, and little affected by local art. Every where the Order exercised a strong influence. The Dominicans and Franciscans borrowed from it many of the peculiar traits of their churches. The Cistercians adopted at once the vaulted type, and were the pioneers of the Gothic revolution, carrying its germs, in Burgundian form, to nearly every civilized country. It was not until the middle of the thirteenth century that the Order had largely yielded its simplicity to the advance of the rich and harmonious style of cathedral Gothic, though before that it had begun to change in minor ways, as in allowing the use of stone in place of wooden towers. When the special mission of the Order was finished, its monasteries, being in remote country districts, were often allowed to go to ruin; but many of the

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most notable architectural monuments of its golden period remain worthy to stand by the side of the great cathedrals. Such are the abbeys of Maulbronn, Heiligen-kreuz, Lilienfeld, and Tischnowitz, in Germany and Austria; of Chiaravalle, Fossanova, and Casamari, in Italy; of Pontigny in France; Batalha in Portugal; Veruela in Spain, and those named above in England.

For the history of the Order, consult: Janauschek, Origines Cistercienses (Vienna, 1877); Guignard, Monuments primitifs de la règle cistercienne (Dijon, 1877); D'Arbois de Jubainville and Pigeotte, Etude sur l'état intérieur des abbayes cisterciennes aux XII. et XIII. siècles (Paris, 1858). For the architectural side of the subject: Sharpe, The Architecture of the Cistercians (London, 1874); Eulart, Origines de l'architecture gothique en Italie (Paris, 1893); and the works named in the article on MONASTIC ART.

CISTERN (OF. cisterne, Lat. cisterna, reservoir, from cista, chest). An artificial reservoir, usually of masonry or woodwork, and located either above the ground, or, more commonly, in an excavation. In places where the supply of water is intermittent, or where rain-water is used, every house requires a cistern, tank, or other receptacle for storing water. For comparatively large supplies of water, such as are required for manufacturing and railway service, receptacles for storing water are now almost universally termed reservoirs, tanks, or stand pipes. See WATER-WORKS; DAMS AND RESERVOIRS.

CITADEL (Fr. citadelle, It. cittadella, dim. of città, a city, especially a fortified city). The fortified stronghold of a city or town; hence also the strongest part of any extensive fortification. Its function in ancient systems of fortification was akin to that of the donjon or keep of a castle; it provided a refuge of last resort for a garrison driven from the other works, in which they might hold out for a while longer against the enemy while awaiting succor from the outside. The medieval citadel was accordingly situated, as a rule, at the most commanding and externally inaccessible angle of the city walls, with one gate opening toward the town and a sallyport toward the country. Modern warfare, with its long-range artillery and external lines of defense by earthworks and masked batteries, has rendered these old-time devices obsolete.

The term citadel is applied not only as above, to special portions of a system of fortifications, but also to any commanding and strongly defended castle or fort dominating a town, at once for defense and refuge. The acropoles of ancient Greece (as at Athens, Corinth, Tiryns, etc.) constituted the citadels of those towns. (See ACROPOLIS.) Edinburgh Castle, the ruined citadel-castle of Smyrna, and the historic fortress of Antonia at Jerusalem (not extant) are examples of citadel-castles in this sense. The fortified prison of the Bastille, in Paris, deemed impregnable until the Revolution of 1789, was the citadel of that royal capital. The fortified heights of Quebec are still called the Citadel. See CASTLE.

CITATION (ML. citatio, from Lat. citare, to call). A mandate of a court of competent jurisdiction, commanding the person or persons named therein to appear in that court for some purpose specified briefly in the citation.