tures of cotton and woolen goods. It was founded in 1220, as a protection against Treviso, and has still retained its walls, tower, and moat. Population, in 1881 (commune), 9087; in 1901, 9886. CITTÀ DI CASTELLO, chêt-tä' dê kås-těl′ld (It., City of the Castle). A city in the Province of Perugia, Central Italy, situated near the left bank of the Tiber, 20 miles east of Arezzo (Map: Italy, G 4). It is surrounded by walls dating from the beginning of the sixteenth century, and contains a number of magnificent palaces, including several belonging to the Vitelli, the lords of the city during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The cathedral, a Renaissance structure, completed in 1540, has a campanile and a carved portal belonging to the original Romanesque building of 1012. The town-hall, dating from the fourteenth century, is a splendid building and contains a fine collection of Italian paintings and other objects of art. Although some of the first church pictures of Raphael were painted for Città di Castello, the town does not possess any originals of the master in its public collections. The chief manufactured products are silk and nails. Its commerce is of some importance. Città di Castello is the seat of a bishop, and occupies the site of Tifernum Tiberinum, destroyed by Totila. Population, in 1881 (commune), 24,002; in 1901, 26,439.

CITTANOVA, chêt'tä-nová. A town in the Province of Reggio, Calabria, Italy, 31 miles northeast of Reggio. It arose from the ruins of Casalnuovo, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 1783. Its present name dates from 1852. The cultivation of olives and manufacture of olive oil constitute its chief industry. Population, in 1901 (commune), 11,713.

CITTÀ VECCHIA, chệt-tä' věkʼyå. Former capital of Malta, 6 miles west of Valetta. Pop., 4000. CITY (Fr. cité, Lat. civitas). In the United States, a chartered municipal corporation whose chief executive officer is usually known as the mayor. The legislatures of the various States have prescribed different requisites for the granting of city charters, the principal condition being that in respect to population. City charters vary in the degree of power they confer on the municipal authorities, the measure of local autonomy being usually, though not always, regulated by the number of inhabitants. Besides the mayor, there are, as a rule, a board of aldermen and a common council. In Great Britain the term city is generally applied to an incorporated cathedral town-i.e. one which is, or has been, the seat of a bishop or the capital of his see. In the sense in which it was first used in the Romance languages of modern Europe, the word 'city,' like its Latin original and the Greek wóмs, was probably equivalent to State (respublica), rather than to town or borough (urbs municipium); and while the latter signified a collection of hearths and households, governed by municipal laws internally, but subject externally to the laws of the country of which it formed a part, the former was applied only to such towns as, with their surrounding districts, were independent of any external authority. The only cities in this sense now are the free towns of Germany, and such of the cantons of Switzerland as consist chiefly of a town and its surroundings, as Geneva. The ancient Gauls, though composing one nation, were divided into tribes, living in different cantons,

each with its town, to which the term 'civitas' was applied; and as they also acknowledged a species of central authority, several cities sending delegates to a central one of greater extent and importance to discuss their common affairs, there is reason to believe that the term 'city' was applied, par excellence, to those central places of meeting, and thus, from a very early period, signified a capital or metropolis, though not independent. See CITIZEN.

The

POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL ASPECTS. city has always been the centre of commercial and industrial development, but its origin is to be found among agricultural peoples, who possessed the fertile lands and built themselves walled towns, or took possession of some naturally fortified places, such as the Acropolis of Athens, in order to protect themselves from the attacks of the predatory tribes. Within the city, handicraft, exchange, and various industries grew up. Babylon and Egypt were full of these small communities, now buried beneath the sand. They were situated on rivers and the seacoast, and soon became centres of commerce. Large cities were a prominent feature of the ancient world; Thebes, Memphis, Babylon, Nineveh, Susa, Tyre, Carthage, and Jerusalem were great centres. Greece, for its extent and population, had many large cities. Alexandria is said to have contained over 500,000, and Rome was still larger. As capital of the Empire of the East, Constantinople sucCivilization was associated with city life, as was ceeded Rome as the principal city in Europe. illustrated by the use of the word 'pagan' (Lat. paganus, dweller in a country district, where the city). In the Mohammedan East, during part heathenism often survived much longer than in of the Middle Ages, Bagdad, Damascus, and Cairo led in population, while Cordova was the greatest city of the Mohammedan West and for a time of all Europe. Compact cities grew up in the Middle Ages in nearly every European country. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, Europe had six or seven cities numbering 100,000; at the end, thirteen or fourteen. During the seventeenth century, while civil war prevailed, although the population of Europe remained stationary, the cities increased.

A remarkable fact of the nineteenth century has been the constant increase in urban life at the expense of the rural districts. Cities have grown absolutely and proportionally in respect to the total population. This is almost universally true. Naples, Budapest, Athens, Bucharest, Russian cities, South American cities, and even Jerusalem, Cairo, and Damascus may be included. The tendency toward city life is noticeable in agricultural Australia. England was the first country to recognize the new grouping of population, and to adopt means to meet its dangers. The seaports and cathedral and country towns were suddenly left far behind by the new manufacturing towns, many of which had no corporate existence in 1835. In 1851, 50.08 per cent. of England's population was urban; in 1901 77 per cent. of the population of England and Wales lived in cities and towns of 3000 and over. Nearly 38 per cent. of the population of Germany is urban, and only a slightly less proportion of the population of France dwell in cities. Approximately 40 per cent. of the population of Belgium and Holland is found in cities; and even in Australasia, where the importance of agricultural and

The most striking urban development naturally appears in the Eastern States. In 1900 81 per cent. of the population of Rhode Island lived in cities of 8000 and over; 76 per cent. of the population of Massachusetts; 69 per cent. of that of New York; 53 per cent. of that of Connecticut. Noticeable phenomena are the growth in the number of cities in agricultural States, such as Kansas and Nebraska, and along the Pacific Coast, and the remarkable increase from 1880 to 1890. The census of 1900 shows that an increase has taken place in the South-Central and Western States; that the North-Atlantic and North-Central States still contain four-fifths of the urban elements-a few States having over two-thirds of their population in cities; and that, since 1890, the percentage of urban increase has been 16 per cent. greater than that of the total population. Throughout the world the remarkable growth of great cities is of special significance, and also the manner of growth. There is great difficulty in comparing statistics because of the failure to distinguish the economic from the political unit. It is the territory economically dependent upon the large centre which continues to grow rapidly. The important point to be noted is, that the increased size of these cities is due to suburban extensions. The older portions of the city have the population displaced by business and improvements; rapid-transit facilities remove the residential portions to outlying districts, where better conditions are possible, and the congested wards do not grow except where a low class of immigrants appear. However, the incomers to the slums are largely balanced by the outgoers. Certain forms of industry are also moving to the suburbs.

A principal cause of urban growth was the industrial revolution which stimulated the increase of population and concentrated it in large towns. It is noticeable that the tendency to city life in the different countries is coincident with the growth of manufacturing industries. An advantageous commercial situation is still a cause of growth for individual cities, as instanced by Liverpool, Montevideo, or Denver. More recent reasons for the depopulation of the country districts have been the low price of farm products; the improvements in agricultural machinery, which have reduced the demand for labor; the decreased demand for rural craftsmen, due to the factory products and improved transportation; and the varied opportunities for advancement afforded by the city.

A few of the effects of this agglomeration of population may be enumerated. (1) Economic. Great extremes of wealth are found in the cities,

but the possibilities of greater production raise the average of prosperity and the standard of living. Increased taxation and municipal indebtedness make heavy demands upon the social purse. The cost of living is high, especially in rents, resulting in the horrors of overcrowding. Staples, however, are lower, and consumption can be greatly varied. The existence of an unemployed class is probably due to the immigration of a low class. Association is an aid to labor, in that it favors organization. (2) Political. Urban growth has meant national greatness. National stability was considered to depend upon the conservatism accompanying land-tenure. As urban life increases, tenancy becomes more general; but the new forms of wealth have simply expanded property interests. Municipal government (q.v.) presents difficult problems. The population contains floating, non-taxpaying, and foreign elements; the opportunities for corruption are many, and the needs of administration require an expansion in governmental functions. (3) Social. Among the evils of city life are those of disease, infection, dirt, high death-rate, infant mortality, overcrowding, lack of light and air, poor water, the fostering of daring criminals, the nervous tension of the life and the lack of provision for education and recreation, as well as the dangers of class antagonism. Industrial competition has weakened the tendency of cities to be the centres of radicalism, but association unconsciously strengthens social solidarity. A humanitarian movement is apparent, as instanced in philanthropic associations, while common interests have developed municipal activities broadly social in their nature. The cities are necessarily the centres of thought, culture, and progress. Urban life must be accepted as a prominent factor of civilization, whose evils are temporary and remediable. The old cities are in process of remaking; the solution of the problem is not a return to rural life, but a better adjustment to the urban environment. See MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult: The Law Commentaries of Blackstone, Kent, and Stephen; also Jhering, Evolution of the Aryan (Eng. trans., New York, 1897); Howe, The City (New York, 1905); F. J. Goodnow, City Government in the United States (New York, 1905); Fustel de Coulanges, La cité antique (15th ed., Paris, 1895; Eng. trans., London, 1874); Weber, "The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century," in Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, vol. xi. (New York, 1901), where there is an extensive treatment of the subject, with bibliographical notes; Shaw, Municipal Government in Great Britain (New York, 1895); James, "The Growth of Great Cities in Area and Population,” in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. xiii. (Philadelphia, 1899); Bibliography of Municipal Administration and City Conditions, issued by Municipal Affairs, vol. i. (New York, 1897, United States Census Reports).

CITY HEIRESS, THE. A comedy by Mrs. Aphra Behn (1682), based upon Middleton's A Mad World, My Masters. The prologue was written by Otway.

CITY MADAM, THE. A comedy by Philip Massinger, licensed May 25, 1632, and printed in 1658. It was revived at Drury Lane, April 29, 1783. The doubt which has been raised as to its entire authenticity is unfounded.

CITY MATCH, THE. A comedy by Jasper Mayne, printed at Oxford in 1639, and produced the same year, first at Whitehall, London, before the King and Queen, and then at Blackfriars. It was republished in 1659, and was revised for the stage by Bromfield, in 1755, under the title of The Schemers, and by Planche, in 1828, under the title of The Merchant's Wedding. It is a clever though rather involved piece, criticised by Pepys as 'silly.'

CITY MOUSE AND CANTERBURY MOUSE, THE. An old fable of a country mouse invited to the home of a mouse in the city, where, while feasting on unaccustomed dainties, she is terrified by the onslaught of a cat, and is led to esteem the security of her frugal life in the fields more highly than the town luxuries with their attendant perils. The fable is a satire by Matthew Prior (1687) on Dryden's Hind and Panther.

CITY NIGHTCAP, THE. A play by Robert Davenport, licensed for the stage in 1624, though not printed until 1661. Ten years later, an adaptation of the play, by Mrs. Aphra Behn, appeared under the title, The Amorous Prince. It is included in Dodsley's Old Plays (1740).

CITY OF A HUNDRED TOWERS. An

appellation of Pavia, Italy, from its many towers and steeples.

CITY OF BROTHERLY LOVE (Gk. pihadeλpía, philadelphia, from píos, philos, dear + ádeλpós, adelphos, brother; confused with aSepia, Philadelphia, a city in Asia Minor, named after Attalus Philadelphus). The English rendering of the two Greek words composing the name Philadelphia, whence it is used as an occasional appellation for that city. The name was originally given by William Penn.

CITY OF CHURCHES. A name given to Brooklyn, N. Y., on account of the large number of its churches.

CITY OF DAVID. Jerusalem, which David took from the Jebusites and made the capital of his kingdom. The term is applied also to Bethlehem, where David is supposed to have been born. CITY OF DESTRUCTION, THE. The city from which Christian begins his journey to the Celestial City, in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. It represents the state of worldliness.

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CITY OF DREADFUL NIGHT, THE. poem by James Thomson, published from March to May in the National Reformer, in 1874. It was published in a collection of his poems (London, 1880). An American edition appeared in 1892. It is a mystically pessimistic work, describing the author's descent into a city of black hopelessness, whose denizens find no consolation, even in the thought of the transiency of earthly sorrow and pain.

CITY OF ELMS. A name given to New Haven, Conn., from the fine elm-trees on the Green and along the older streets of the town. CITY OF GOD (Lat. De Civitate Dei). See AUGUSTINE, SAINT.

CITY OF HOMES. An appellation of Philadelphia, from its large number of dwelling-houses. CITY OF MAGNIFICENT DISTANCES, THE. A term applied once somewhat derisively, but now proudly, to Washington, D. C. The city was laid out at the end of the eigh teenth century on so grand a scale that the be

lief was strong that it would never realize the ideal of its founders.

CITY OF OAKS. A name for Raleigh, N. C. CITY OF PALACES. A name for Calcutta. CITY OF REFUGE (Heb. 'ir miglat). A town reserved as a temporary asylum for homicides fleeing from the vengeance of the avenger of blood. The phrase refers particularly to the Jewish form of the right of asylum, which has existed, in most primitive societies, as a device for mitigating the excesses of private vengeance and for securing some form of legal inquiry into the offense charged. Such asylum, sanctioned and protected by law, is clearly a survival from the protection which the man-slayer sought and found in his own family or tribe, early law permitting the lex talionis, or right of retaliation, on behalf of the injured family or tribe, so long as the malefactor was at large. Asylum once having been gained, the responsibility for the crime was transferred to the community protecting the wrong-doer, the compensation due being a money payment, the amount of which was regulated by law.

According to biblical law, there were six cities tentionally could find an asylum (Num. xxxv.). in which any one who committed murder uninThree of these cities-Bezer, Ramoth in Gilead, and Golan in Bashan-were east of the Jordan; the other three-Kedesh in Galilee, Shechem, and Hebron-were to the west. If the murderer reached any of these cities, he was safe from the blood-avenger (Num. xxxv. 12; Deut. iv. 41-43; Joshua xx. 2-9; Ex. xxi. 13; Deut. xix. 4-10). While the Law itself, in its present form in the Book of Numbers, belongs to the postexilic period, there are certain features of it which are unquestionably more ancient. The three refuge cities to the west of the Jordan are all ancient sanctuaries, and were probably, from a much older period even than the Hebrew conquest of Palestine, asylums under the protection of the deities worshiped in the places named. The city of refuge is thus an institution growing out of the ancient custom, widely prevalent, which made every sacred spot, every altar as within whose domain even animals were safe the resting-place of a deity, a place of refuge, from the attacks of man. The oldest Hebrew legislation (Ex. xxi. 12-14) recognizes this law of asylum, while excluding from its protection the willful murderer, who is to be seized even at the altar of Jehovah (Ex. xxi. 14). Since it was the purpose of the religious reforms instituted by King Josiah (q.v.) to recognize the sanctity of only one sanctuary-that of Jerusalem-the asylums connected with the numerous sacred places naturally lost their force. Accordingly, to overcome the difficulty involved in obliging a murderer in any part of the country to flee to Jerusalem, the six cities above mentioned were recognized as places of refuge, with eventual provision of three more in Philistia, Phoenicia, and Cole-Syria (Deut. xix. 8-10). In the legislation in Numbers (chap. xxxv.), which is later than Deuteronomy, further provision is made: (1) The murderer is not to go unpunished, but is to be taken from his asylum to be tried in public, in order to check lawlessness, which prevailed through the survival of the blood-feud customs to a late day; (2) the man-slayer who had been acquitted was safe,

upon the death of the high-priest in whose time the murder was committed, to return to his home. All privileges of the blood-avenger ceased with the death of the high-priest, and any violence on the part of the blood-avenger would be regarded as willful murder; whereas, previous to the death of the high-priest, the manslayer, even after acquittal, had to be on his guard, and if slain by the blood-avenger, his death could not be punished. It is doubtful whether the system provided for in Numbers was ever actually carried out, though in the days of Greek and Roman supremacy many cities of Syria enjoyed special privileges as asylums, and according to Josephus (Antiq. xiii. 2, 3) Jerusalem was included in the number. Consult Förster, De Asylis Græcorum (Berlin). See, also, ASYLUM, RIGHT

OF; BLOOD-FEUD; BLOOD-MONEY.

CITY OF THE PLAGUE, THE. A poem by Professor John Wilson ('Christopher North'), published, with others, in Edinburgh (1816). It is a descriptive poem, partly founded on Defoe's Journal of the Plague in London. At the time of its appearance, it received favorable criticism by Jeffrey, in the Edinburgh Review.

CITY OF THE PROPHET (Ar. Madinat an-Nabi). An appellation of Medina, Arabia, where Mohammed took refuge in the year 622, fleeing from Mecca.

CITY OF THE STRAITS. A name given to Detroit, Mich., from its position on the Detroit River, connecting Lake Saint Clair and Lake Erie.

CITY OF THE SUN, THE. A name given to Baalbec, which was built on the ruins of Heliopolis (The Sun City').

CITY OF THE VIOLATED TREATY, THE. A name given to Limerick, Ireland, from the repeated violations of the treaty made October 3, 1691, after its surrender to the English and Dutch forces.

CITY OF THE VIOLET CROWN, THE. name applied to Athens.

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CITY OF VICTORY (Ar. Misr al-Qahirat). A translation of the Arabic name for Cairo, the capital of Egypt.

CITY POINT. A village in Prince George County, Va., 10 miles northeast of Petersburg; on the James River and on the Norfolk and Western Railroad (Map: Virginia, G 4). It has a trade in brick, lumber, and phosphates, and is of considerable historical interest. Here, in 1864, General Grant made his headquarters, and in his subsequent operations the city was used by the Federal army as its principal landing. place and depot for supplies. Population, about 200.

CITY POLITIQUES, põl'i-tēks'. A satirical comedy, probably printed for the first time in 1683, and produced at the King's Theatre, London, the same year. It is a sharp attack on the contemporary Whig faction, especially on Oates, in the character of Dr. Pauchy. Only the King's protection kept it from being suppressed by the victims of the satire. Some authorities place the date of publication as early as 1675.

CITY RAMBLE, THE; OR, THE PLAYHOUSE WEDDING. A play by Elkanah Settle, printed in London in 1711, and produced at the Drury Lane Theatre, August 17, 1711. It is partly

founded on Beaumont and Fletcher's Knight of the Burning Pestle and The Coxcomb. CITY WIT, THE; or, THE WOMAN WEARS THE BREECHES. A comedy by Richard Brome (q.v.). CIUDAD BOLIVAR, sẽ'o0-Däd′ bô-lē'vär (Sp., 'city of Bolivar'). The capital of the State of Bolivar, Venezuela, on the right bank of the Orinoco, about 240 miles from its mouth (Map: point of the river, only 185 feet above the level Venezuela, E 2). It is situated at a narrow of the sea, and is well built, having spacious, handsome buildings. Of these the more notable are the palace of the Governor, the college, the market, the cathedral, and the theatre. There are and Guzman Blanco and in the cemetery. The several fine monuments in the Plazas Bolivar city is the seat of a bishop. Owing to its posi

tion on the Orinoco, Ciudad Bolivar is an important commercial centre, now ranking among the four largest ports of Venezuela. Its chief export is coffee; but rubber, cattle, hides, sugar, and asphalt also are exported in considerable quantities. Population, in 1891, 11,686. Ciudad Bolivar was founded in 1764, and was known as Angostura until 1819, when the Congress met which, under the inspiration of Simon Bolivar, formed the new Republic of Colombia out of the States of Venezuela and New Granada. Since then the city has borne his name.

CIUDAD DE LA FRONTERA, då lå frônta'rå (Sp., the frontier city). (1) The name of a town at the mouth of the river Tabasco, in Southern Mexico. (2) The old Spanish name for the town of Chachapoyas, Peru.

CIUDAD DE LAS CASAS, då lås kä'sås. See SAN CRISTÓBAL DE LOS LLANOS.

CIUDAD DE LOS REYES, dâ lôs ra'yâs (Sp., 'city of the kings'). The name given by Pizarro to the present city of Lima, Peru, when he founded it, in 1535, on the banks of the river called, by the Quichuan (Peruvian) Indians, "Rimac," which became first "Limac" and finally "Lima."

dim. of ciudad, city). CIUDADELA, the'ōō-Dá-Dã'lå (Sp., little city, Spanish island of Minorca, situated on the west A seaport town of the coast. Population, in 1887, 8447; in 1900, 8645.

CIUDAD GUZMÁN. A city of Mexico, in the southern part of the State of Jalisco, 60 miles northeast of Colima. In 1891 it had a population of 23,025, but that number declined to 17,596 in 1900.

CIUDAD JUAREZ, sẽ'-00-DäD' Hoo-ä'rĕth (Sp., city of Juarez). A city in the State of El Paso, Tex., and on the Mexican Central RailChihuahua, Mexico, on the Rio Grande, opposite road (Map: Mexico, F 2). It is situated at an altitude of 3800 feet above sea-level, in a fertile district, devoted to agriculture, stock-raising, and fruit and vine cultivation. The city has a Mexican army-post, custom-house, and a statue of Juarez. It is the residence of a United States consul. Ciudad Juarez was formerly known as El Paso del Norte. Population, about 7000. CIUDAD

PORFIRIO DIAZ, pôr-fe'rê-ō death. A town in the State of Coahuila, Mexico, on the Rio Grande, opposite Eagle Pass, Tex., and on the Mexican International Railroad (Map: Mexico, H 3). It is the Mexican ter minus of the international bridge across the Rio Grande, and has a Mexican army-post and a

custom-house. It is the residence of a United States consul. The town is the centre of an agricultural, stock-raising, and fruit-growing region, and carries on an extensive international trade. Coal is found in the vicinity. Ciudad Porfirio Diaz was founded in 1849, and derives its present name from the President of the Republic. The town was formerly called Piedras Negras. Population, about 5000.

CIUDAD REAL, the'ōō-DäD' rä-äl' (Sp., royal city). A town of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, in New Castile, situated in a fertile plain between the rivers Guadiana and Jabalón, about 100 miles south of Madrid (Map: Spain, D 3). It is surrounded by walls, is the seat of a bishopric, and has some notable edifices, including the municipal building, the parish church of Santa María del Prado-a massive Gothic structure, with a fine interior-and several monasteries and hospitals. There are manufactures of coarse woolens, linen, olive-oil, flour, leather, etc.; also a trade in the agricul tural produce of the district, which is engaged in raising stock, particularly mules, and bulls for the ring. An annual fair is held. Population, in 1900, 15,327.

Ciudad Real was founded by Alphonso X., after the middle of the thirteenth century, as a fortress against the Moors, and soon attained considerable importance from the privileges granted by its founder. In 1809 the town was the scene of a Spanish defeat by the French,

under Sebastiani.

CIUDAD RODRIGO, rô-drē'go (Sp.. city of Rodrigo). A fortified town of Spain, in the Province of Salamanca, near the Portuguese frontier (Map: Spain, B 2). It is situated on an elevation above the river Ciqueda, which is here crossed by a fine bridge, and has a cathedral of considerable architectural interest, the earliest portion of which dates from the close of the twelfth century, three Roman columns, and remains of an aqueduct. The manufactures include soap, leather, linen, woolens, etc. The town is the seat of a bishop. Population, in 1900, 8007.

In the War of the Spanish Succession Ciudad Rodrigo was taken by the English in 1706, and recaptured by the French in the following year. In July, 1810, the French, under Masséna, captured it; but in January, 1812, it was retaken by the British, under Wellington.

CIUDAD VICTORIA the'oo-päÐ' vik-tō'rê-å (Sp., city of victory). The capital of the State of Tamaulipas, Mexico, 160 miles southeast of Monterey (Map: Mexico, J 6). It is finely situated on the eastern slope of the great plateau, and is the centre of a sugar-growing district. It is the see of a bishop and the residence of a United States consular agent. Ciudad Victoria dates from 1750, but not until 1825 was its present name adopted. Population, in 1900, 10,086.

CIVET (Fr. civette, from MGk. ČARÉTIOν, zapetion, from Ar. zabad, zubad, civet, from Pers. zadab, froth of water). A genus (Viverra) of carnivores of the Old-World family Viverrida, connecting the cats with the hyenas, and having the body elongated in some of the species as much as in the weasel tribe; the head is also long and the muzzle sharp. The ears are short, broad, and rounded. The feet have five toes,

and the claws are only semi-retractile. There is a more or less conspicuous erectile mane along the back, as in hyenas. Near the sexual organs, in both sexes, there is a large double pouch, in which is secreted an odoriferous, fatty substance, called 'civet,' much used in compounding perfumes. There are several species of civet, of which the best known is the common or African civet (Viverra civetta) of northern Africa, from two to three feet long, brownish-gray, with numerous black bands and spots. The civet preys on birds, small quadrupeds, and reptiles, and is regarded as a benefactor along the Nile, on account of its appetite for crocodile's eggs. It is very commonly kept in confinement for the sake of its perfume, which is removed from the bag about twice a week by means of a small spatula, and is obtained most abundantly from the male, especially after he has been irritated. A dram is a large quantity to obtain at a time. After being cleaned of hairs, washed, and dried, civet is ready for the market, and is worth from $10 to $12 an ounce, if pure. About 20,000 ounces are imported into London annually, and this represents a large part of the total product. The civets kept for the purpose of providing perfume are fed on raw flesh; the young partly on farinaceous food. The principal source of supply of commercial civet is northern Africa, especially Abyssinia. Several other species of

civet occur in southeastern Asia and in the East

Indies, all handsomely striped or spotted. The linsang and the binturong are most prominent among these.

CIVIALE, sê'vê-ȧl' JEAN (1792-1867). A French surgeon, born at Thiézac, Cantal. He is remembered for his discovery of the operation of lithotrity' for the removal of stones from the bladder without the loss of blood. For this discovery he was awarded a prize of 6000 franes by the Academy, in 1826. His publications include: Parallèle des divers moyens de traiter les calculeux (1836-37); De l'urétrotomie (1849); Résultats cliniques de la lithotritie pendant les années 1860-64 (1865); and La lithotritie et la taille (1870).

CIVIC CROWN (Lat. corona civica). One of the most highly valued honors that a Roman could obtain. It was given for saving the life of a citizen in battle or assault, and was voted by the Senate to the Emperor Augustus as servator civium. The civic crown was merely a wreath of oak leaves, with pendant acorns. The one to whom it was given had the right to wear it always. When he appeared at the games all rose to do him honor, and he was entitled to a seat next to the senators; he was also excused from all troublesome duties and services, with the same immunities for his father and his father's father.