C

AIRO, kírð (from Ar. Masr elQahira, the victorious capital). The capital of Egypt and the largest city of Africa. It is situated near the right bank of the Nile, about nine miles above its bifurcation into the Rosetta and Damietta arms, 150 miles southeast of Alexandria and 80 miles west of Suez (Map: Egypt, E 2). It covers an area of 11 square miles divided into separate quarters named after the nationality of the inhabitants, and is surrounded by a low wall. Notwithstanding modern improvements, the Arabian quarters retain their Oriental character, the streets in that part of Cairo being narrow, crooked, and but few of them paved. The houses are mostly of stone, several stories high, and with window-lattices of wrought iron. The modern portion of Cairo, called Ismailieh, is extending westward. It is lighted by gas, has electric tramways, and is well laid out with broad avenues, fine squares, and a beautiful park on the Place Ezbekieh, occupying an area of over twenty acres and containing a number of gardens and amusement places. The Place Ezbekieh is the centre of modern Cairo, and around it are situated the principal theatres, hotels, and consulates.

The chief beauty and interest of Cairo lie in its numerous mosques, of which some are regarded as the best specimens of Arabic architecture. The Gami-ibn-Tulun, erected about 879, is the finest. It is square and surmounted by four minarets and a dome, and has a court with a fountain in the centre. The Gami Amra is the oldest in Egypt, but only a small portion of it is left. The Gami Sultan Hassan was begun in 1356, and, in point of splendor, stands foremost among the mosques of Cairo. It is cruciform in the interior, and contains a large number of pillars and beautiful hanging lamps. Its inner court has two fountains of singular beauty, and its dome is flanked by two minarets, the southern of which is said to be the highest in Egypt. Among other mosques may be mentioned that of Mehemet Ali, a structure of considerable architectural merit, recently built after Turkish models, with high minarets of alabaster. The mosque of Kait Bey dates from the Fifteenth Century. Cairo has a number of tombs of califs and Mamelukes, some of which are of great size and

finely built. The obelisks, once so numerous, have disappeared, and now adorn various European and American cities. Among the palaces of Cairo is the vice-regal residence situated within the citadel; the beautiful palace of Gesireh in the northwestern part of the city, now converted into a hotel; and the palace of Addin in the centre of the city, frequently occupied by the Khedive. The bazaars of Cairo are extensive and well stocked, although inferior to those of Constantinople or Smyrna. The chief business street, Muski, has greatly decreased in importance. The citadel of Cairo is situated southeast of the city, and affords a fine view; its strategical importance is greatly detracted from by the fact that it is dominated by the Jebel Mokattam.

As an educational centre Cairo ranks high; its schools are attended by students from all parts of the Islamic world. Among its educational institutions the El-Azhar stands foremost, both in size and importance. It is situated in an old mosque, and is surrounded by numerous smaller buildings, used for the accommodation of the 10.000 students, of whom about 2000 live in the college. Its history can be traced as far back as 975, and it is considered the oldest university in the world. It has faculties of theology and jurisprudence, and is maintained chiefly by endowments, no tuition fee being charged. The members of the teaching faculties receive no compensation and are compelled to earn their living by private tuition or clerical labor.

The other educational institutions include schools of art and medicine, a veterinary and a polytechnical school, besides numerous missionary and Arab schools. The vice-regal library contains about 50,000 volumes, including a number of very rare copies of the Koran.

Da

Cairo is the residence of the Khedive, and is the seat of administration of Egypt. It has also an international court and consular representatives from all important countries. The manufactures of Cairo include metal articles, textiles, essences of flowers, etc. There is railway communication with Alexandria, mietta, Suez, El-Merg, Heluan, and Upper Egypt. The population of Cairo and its suburbs was 565,187 in 1897, consisting chiefly of Fellahin, Turks, Copts, and Arabs, together with Nubians, Berbers, Abyssinians, Jews, and over 20,000 foreigners.

Old Cairo or Fostat was founded in 640 by Amru, the conqueror of Egypt, on the site of his camp and near the old town of Babylon. It was the capital of the country till 973, when Gauhar, the general of the Fatimite Caliph Al Moez, founded to the north of Fostat the new town of Al Kahirah, the Victorious City; Saladin enlarged the boundaries of the town and surrounded it with walls. Throughout the Middle Ages Cairo was one of the chief centres of Mohammedan culture, and the emporium for the trade between Europe and the East. From 1798 to 1801 it was held by the French; it passed from them to the Turks, and through the Turks to Mehemet Ali, the founder of the present ruling dynasty. Though much of its former great ness has departed, Cairo is still one of the great capitals of Islam, and the life within its walls presents a picturesque blending of the buoyant European civilization, as represented by the English and French residents, with the dreamy mysticism of the Oriental world. Consult: Reynolds-Ball, The City of the Caliphs (Boston 1897); Penfield, Present-Day Egypt (New York, 1899); and Kemeid, Cairo and Egypt (London, 1899-1900).

CAIRO, kāʼrð. A city, port of entry, and county-seat of Alexander County, Ill., at the junction of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, 125 miles (direct) southeast of Saint Louis, on the Illinois Central, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis, and other railroads (Map: Illinois, C.6). The Ohio River is here crossed by a railroad bridge 2 miles long, and 58 feet above high water, which cost $2,500,000. Cairo has a public library (A. B. Safford Memorial), a Government custom-house, and a United States marine hospital. It has considerable manufactures, chiefly products of lumber, and has an extensive river trade, being an important market for lumber and the agricultural products of the Mississippi valley. Settled about 1837, Cairo was incorporated some 30 years later. It was expected to become a great commercial centre, and is the place described by Dickens in Martin Chuzzlewit as "Eden"; but, until it was protected by levees, begun in 1857, it suffered from frequent curred in 1858. During the Civil War large quantities of military supplies were stored here by the Federal Government. Cairo is governed under a general act of the State Legislature, passed 1872, with slight amendments since that time. The mayor, who is elected biennially, and the city council, chosen by wards, select the city marshal, tax collector, corporation counsel, health officers, policemen, etc. Other officers are elected. Pop., 1900, 12,566; 1903 (est.), 13,238.

inundations, the most disastrous of which oc

CAIROLI, ki'rô-lê, BENEDETTO (1825-89). An Italian statesman, born at Gropello, near Pavia. He was educated at the University of Pavia, which he left in 1848 to volunteer in the war against Austria, and from 1851 to 1859 lived in exile in Piedmont, when he again took up arms for Italian liberty, serving at the siege of Palermo, in the Trentino, and at Monterotondo and Mutino. Though he favored a republic, he was induced to accept the constitutional monarchy. After the accession of Humbert I. Cairoli became president of the Chamber, and was appointed Premier in March, 1878. This was the beginning of the period of personal and factional politics which have since been the bane of

Italy. On November 17, as the King was driving into Naples, a certain Giovanni Passanante attempted to assassinate him with a poniard, but was prevented by Cairoli, who was in the carriage, and who received a severe wound, while King Humbert escaped with a mere scratch. In December, 1878, the Cairoli Ministry resigned. The Depretis Ministry, which succeeded, was in turn defeated in 1879 and the Left again came into power, under Cairoli, who was, however, forced to reconstruct his Cabinet the same year, and to bring in Depretis as Minister of the Interior. Finally, owing to the unpopularity of the policy pursued in regard to the French expedition to Tunis, the Ministry resigned in 1881. From that time until his death Signor Cairoli was conspicuous as a leader of the so-called 'historic' Left. Consult Lowell, Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (Boston, 1897).

chest, Eng. case). A wheeled vehicle or ammuniCAISSON, käs'son (Fr. augment of caisse, tion carriage of which each field gun has from Modern rapid fire field guns require an enormous amount of ammunition as compared to the weapons of the last century, which accounts for the greater number of caissons now required. In the United States service, which may be taken as an illustration, the field battery of four guns has twelve caissons, each having one chest carrying 70 rounds of ammunition, a spare pole, and such tools as may be necessary in case of accident. Each caisson is regarded as a two-wheeled vehicle having a limber interchangeable with that of the gun, and is arranged to be coupled up in trains when using traction engines or when moving empty to the rear. The tops of the caisson and limber chests are provided with hand rails, grip, and cushion straps so as to be used as seats by the cannoneers. On the under side of the chest are carriers for three oil cans. The weight behind the team with caisson fully loaded and limbered up is about 4050 pounds. See ARTILLERY; FIELD ARTILLERY; LIMBER.

one to three or sometimes more attached thereto.

CAISSON. In engineering, a large watertight box of timber or metal with sides nearly or quite vertical, in which work may be done below water level, as in constructing the foundations of bridge piers, or the long columns in modern tall office buildings. The term may be applied also to a water-tight box employed to raise sunken vessels, to designate a boat gate for a dry dock, or a floating dry dock itself. Caissons may be divided into open caissons and pneumatic

caissons.

An open caisson is simply a watertight box open at the top, in which the masonry foundation for a bridge pier is to be built. It is constructed with sides up to twenty or more feet high. It is built either ashore and launched, or afloat, and then towed to the site of the permanent work. After being anchored in position the building of the masonry pier inside the caisson proceeds, and the caisson sinks until the top is nearly level with the surface of the water, when another section is added and the construction proceeds. Finally, it will rest either on the river-bed or upon properly placed piles. After the masonry is brought to the desired height, the timbers constituting the caisson are then removed. The pneumatic caisson, on the other hand, is open at the bottom. The upward extension of the structure is an open caisson within which the masonry is built on top, so that the weight causes

the shoe-i.e., the lower edge of the vertical sides -to sink into the natural soil. In the working chamber, the floor of which is the bottom of the excavation, the roof the top of the caisson, and the walls the sides of caisson, the material is excavated. From the working chamber, extending upward through the caisson and the masonry pier, is an air shaft, which affords the means of exit or entrance, while between the two is the air lock whose function is to retain the air pressure in the working chamber. See FOUNDATIONS. See Docks for description of caissons used with dry docks.

CAISSON DISEASE. A rare affection induced by remaining for any length of time in a caisson. The disease was first described by Pol and Watelle, in 1845. The symptoms are buzzing and pain in the ears, dizziness, loss of power in the legs, severe pain in the arms, legs, and shoulders, bleeding from the nose and lungs, and occasionally unconsciousness. According to one theory of causation, caisson disease is due to poisoning by carbonic acid. According to another theory, it is due to congestion of the internal organs with subsequent blood-stasis, resulting in possible blocking of the blood vessels by small thrombi, followed in turn by a necrotic process. According to a third theory, the disease is due to increased solution by the blood of the compressed gases of the air (principally nitrogen and carbonic acid) and to their rapid liberation during decompression. The theory of Hill and Macleod, now considered correct, is that caisson disease, or "Diver's Palsy," is due to the escape of gas bubbles in the blood-vessels and tissuefluids during decompression. The varying symptoms of the disease are due to the varying seat of

the air emboli.

In the treatment of caisson disease, morphia, heat, stimulants, strychnine, and ergot are recommended. Returning to compressed air for a time, and then emerging very slowly, has benefited many sufferers. Preventive treatment may consist in increasing the time spent in "locking out" to one minute for every three pounds of pressure, a sudden transition from compressed air to the pressure of the atmosphere being quite dangerous. Finally, only perfectly sound men should be selected for work in caissons. Consult: Pol and Watelle, Mémoire sur les effets de la compression de l'air," in Annales d'hygiène publique et de médecine légale (Paris, 1884); Smith, The Physiological, Pathological, and Therapeutic Effects of Compressed Air (Detroit, Mich., 1886); and Lloyd, "Effects of Compressed Air," in Twentieth Century Practice, Vol. III. (New York, 1895); Journ. of Hygiene, III., No. 4, October, 1903. See FOUNDATION.

CAITHNESS, kāth'něs. The northernmost county of Scotland. Its area is 686 square miles (Map: Scotland, E 1). The general aspect of Caithness is level and bare, it being in great part moorland and destitute of trees, while the seacoast is bold and rocky, with many bays, inlets, promontories, and caves. The chief crops are cats, barley, turnips, and potatoes. The occupants of the small farms divide their time between farming and herring, ling, cod, salmon, and lobster fishing. Wick, the county town, is the chief seat of the British herring fishery. Population, in 1801, 22,600; in 1851, 38,700; in 1891, 37,177; in 1901, 33,860.

CAITHNESS FLAGSTONE. Α dark colored bituminous schist, slightly micaceous and

calcareous, valuable on account of its toughness and durability for pavements, cisterns, and various other purposes. Flagstones of this material are largely exported. They belong to the Devonian Old Red Sandstone, and contain abundant remains of fossil fishes. See DEVONIAN, and OLD RED SANDSTONE.

CA'IUS.

Shakespeare's King Lear.
The name assumed by Kent in

CAIUS, Doctor. A French physician in Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor. He is in love with Anne Page, and elopes with a boy disguised in her clothes.

CAIUS, kēz, JOHN (1510-73). An English physician, the co-founder of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. His real name was Kay or Kaye, which he Latinized into Caius. He was born in Norwich, was educated at Gonville Hall, Cambridge, and, in medicine, at the University of Padua and elsewhere on the Continent, spending much time in search of accurate texts of Galen and Hippocrates. On his return he prac ticed with success at Cambridge, Shrewsbury, and Norwich. In 1547 he was elected a fellow of the College of Physicians, of which he was afterwards nire times elected president. He also became physician to Edward VI., Queen Mary, and Queen Elizabeth. He acquired much wealth from the practice of his profession and employed it in the encouragement of science and learning. In 1557 he refounded Gonville Hall, thereafter known as Gonville and Caius College. In 1559 he was chosen master, and, although he was a Roman Catholic, he retained the office under Elizabeth. His books number twenty-seven titles, including critical, antiquarian, and scientific works, the most famous of which is A Boke of Counseill Against the Sweat and Sweatyng Sickness (1552).

CAIUS COLLEGE. See GONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE.

Sheridan Knowles, published in 1815 and proCA'IUS GRAC/CHUS. A tragedy by J. duced at the Belfast Theatre, on February 13 of that year. Macready brought out a remodeled version on November 18, 1823, at Covent Garden.

CAIVANO, ki-vä'no. A city in south Italy, five miles north of Naples, with which it is connected by a street railway (Map: Italy, J 7). The chief trade is in the grain, hemp, fruit, wine, and olives that grow in the vicinity. It was a place of considerable strength in the Middle Ages, and still retains remains of walls and towers. Population (commune), in 1881, 12,000; in 1901, 12,264.

CAIX, kȧ-ēks', NAPOLEON (1845-). An Italian philologist. He was born at Bozzolo, near Mantua, and was educated in Cremona and Pisa. In 1869 he became professor of ancient languages at the Lyceum of Parma, and in 1873 professor of Romanic languages and comparative philology at the Institute of Higher Studies, Florence. The following are some of his numerous publications: Saggio sulla storia della lingua e dei dialetti d'Italia (1872); Sulla lingua del contrasto (1876); Le origini della lingua poetica italiana (1880), which work is generally considered his best.

CAJAMARCA, kä'нå-märʼkå. An interior department of Peru, in the northwestern part of the republic (Map: Peru, B 5). It has an area

of 12,538 square miles, comprising a highly mountainous district which belongs to the basin of the river Marañon. Population, in 1896, 442,412. The department is noted rather for mineral wealth-principally gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal-than for animal or vegetable life. Cajamarca until 1854 formed part of the Department of Libertad.

CAJAMARCA, or CAXAMARCA, kä'нåmär kå (Quichua ceassac, casac, frost, ice + marca, place, town, referring to its severe climate). A city of Peru, capital of the department of the same name, situated on the east slope of the Andes, at an elevation of about 9000 feet above sea-level; 84 miles from the Pacific coast and 310 miles north by west of Lima (Map: Peru, B 5). It enjoys a moderate temperature; is laid out with broad streets crossing at right angles; and contains several plazas. There are two fine churches, secondary colleges for both sexes, a prison of modern construction, and the ruins of the palace of Astopilco, where Atahualpa, the last of the Incas, was killed in 1533 by Pizarro. Cajamarca is one of the oldest cities of Peru, and figured prominently at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Three miles to the east are hot sulphur springs known as the Incas' baths. The most important manufactures are steel articles, cotton and woolen goods, and straw hats. Population, about 12,000.

CAJ/EPUT

(Malay kāyā, tree + putih, white), Melaleuca leucadendron. A tree of the order Myrtaceæ, from the leaves of which the pungent, aromatic, volatile oil called oil of cajeput is obtained by distillation. The cajeput tree occurs from the Malay Peninsula to Australia, and is a tree 30 to 40 feet high and 2 feet in diameter, with a crooked trunk, papery bark, white wood (whence the name, cajeput), elliptical, lanceolate, alternate leaves, and terminal spikes of white flowers. The greater number of the species are natives of Australia, where more than a dozen well-marked species are known, some of them very beautiful shrubs and frequent ornaments of British hothouses. Much of the oil of cajeput of commerce is prepared from Melaleuca leucadendron, but volatile oils similar in many respects are distilled from the leaves of many other species. A hundred pounds of leaves yield slightly less than one pound of oil. It is maintained by some that the true oil of cajeput comes only from Melaleuca minor, but that species cannot be distinguished botanically from Melaleuca leucadendron. The oil contains a number of complex constitutents, as cajeputol, hydrocarbons, various ethers, etc. It is a stimulant, counter-irritant, diaphoretic, and antiseptic. In India it is used extensively as an external application for rheumatism. The oil is rather heavy, and usually is of a greenish tinge. The wood is hard, close-grained, and durable, especially when placed under ground. The bark is useful for packing, etc. In Australia these trees known as tea-trees. Melaleuca axillaris produces a thin, spongy bark, that can be used for blotting and filter paper.

are

entered the Dominican Order, studied for the next few years at Naples, Padua, and Ferrara (where he held his own in a public disputation with Pico della Mirandola), and in 1508 became general of his order. Leo X. made him a cardinal in 1517, and in the following year sent him to Germany to urge the Emperor and the Scandinavian kings to form a league against the Turks. While on this errand he was commissioned to examine Luther personally, and send him to Rome if need were. Luther appeared before him at Augsburg, but refused to retract his teaching on indulgences, and his breach with the Church was only widened by the discussion. In 1523 Cajetan was sent as legate to Hungary; but Clement VII., on his accession, recalled him to Rome, in order to make He was consulted on the divorce of Henry VIII., use of his theological knowledge and counsel. and decided unhesitatingly against it. He made a translation of the Old Testament, with a commentary, and wrote a treatise on the authority of the Pope, which was answered by the faculty of the University of Paris. He also wrote commentaries upon parts of Aristotle's writings, and upon the Summa of Aquinas. The latter is reprinted in the definitive edition of the great Aquinas issued under the patronage of Leo XIII. (q.v.) (Rome, 1882). He died in Rome, August 9, 1534. A collection of his works appeared at Lyons in 1639 (5 vols.); his life is prefixed. Consult, also, Schilbach, De Vita ac Scriptis de Vio Cajetani (Berlin, 1881).

CAJIGAL, kä'Hê-gäl', FRANCISCO ANTONIO (1695-1777). A Spanish colonial governor, born in Santander, Spain. He was Governor of Santiago, Cuba, from 1738 to 1747, and in 1742, during the war between Spain and England, repelled an attack of Admiral Vernon (q.v.). In 1747 he was appointed Governor-General of Cuba, which position he held until 1760, establishing a navy-yard and arsenal at Havana during his term of office. From 1760 to 1761 he was a viceroy of Mexico ad interim, and afterwards, until his death, lived in Spain.

CAKCHIQUEL, käk'chê-käl. An important tribe or nation, of Mayan stock, formerly holding the central districts of Guatemala, where their descendants still reside. The name is that of a native tree, and their language is a dialect of the Quiche. At the time of their conquest by Alvarado, about 1524, they had attained a high degree of culture, as is evidenced by their architectural remains, their calendar and hieroglyphic systems, and their native literary productions. They had an intense religious veneration for maize, and there is even reason to suppose that they were the first people to reclaim it from its original wild condition. The best compendium of their history and culture is Brinton's Annals of the Cakchiquels.

CAKES, THE LAND OF. A title applied to Scotland, on account of the baps, scones, and oatmeal cakes which, with porridge, form the principal food of the country people. The epithet was prevalent in the Eighteenth Century. CAKE-URCHIN. See SAND-DOLLAR, and

CAJETAN (Lat. Cajetanus) (1469-1534). An Italian ecclesiastic, whose real name Jacopo de Vio (in religion Tomaso), the name Cajetan being assumed by him from his birthplace Gaeta (Cajeta). At the age of 15 he

CAL'ABAR (OLD) RIVER. An estuary. like bay on the north side of the Bight of Biafra, which penetrates British Nigeria just west