period, but a handsome, médium clipper of from 1,400 tons for the British ships to 1,600 and up to 2,000 tons register, for the American; capable of carrying a large cargo at a fair rate of speed. The Maine shipyards at this time turned out a large number of strong wooden sailing ships of from 1,600 to 2,400 tons. These vessels continued in the Atlantic-Pacific trade until the American Hawaiian Steamship Line commenced operations in 1900.

Modern Schooners.- The schooner, as previously mentioned, was a distinctively American product of a comparatively early date (1713). It was largely used in the coastwise trade, to the West Indies, to South America and later to Africa, and it may be said has not fallen from favor even to this day. The early vessels were not over on an average 75 tons. When it became necessary to increase the tonnage of the vessel it was thought to be advantageous to increase the power, so three masts were adopted. The earliest date of the building of a three-masted schooner in this country is thought to be about 1831. There were a few more built about 1845, and in 1847 the Midas was converted into a three-masted schooner, the Zachary Taylor was built at Philadelphia in 1849 and the Spray at Wilmington, Del., the same year. The period when this type of sailing vessel had passed the experimental stage appears to have been in 1853 when there were built the Gardner Pike, the James H. Chadbourne, the Kate Brigham and the E. R. Bennett; and in 1855 the Eckford Webb and the William L. Burroughs; and in 1856 the Hartstein and the Cordelia. The two latter were two-decked vessels and were the largest of the type built for some years. These vessels were used mainly in our coasting trade, as far south as the Gulf of Mexico ports. There were a few more built prior to 1860; the Civil War came on when but few, if any, were built. It was 1868 before three-masted schooners were again constructed, and by 1873 they were the most popular type of our coastwise sailing vessels. The first four-masted schooner was the William L. White, built at Bath, Me., and completed in June 1880. The Northern lakes also had four-masters immediately after the William L. White. Then it was some years before the pioneer five-master was constructed in 1888 at Waldoboro, Me., as the Governor Ames. The latter was the largest schooner for 12 years, until the George W. Wells was built in 1900 as a six-masted schooner. The largest of them all was the Thomas W. Lawson, built of steel in 1902, as a seven-masted schooner. This superb vessel foundered off the Scilly Islands in 1907.

Iron Hull Ships.—Although iron had been used in Great Britain for building hulls as far back as 1829 and came into common use in the early 40's, the first iron hull sailing vessel constructed in the United States was the schooner Mahlon Betts of 275 tons, built in 1854 at Wilmington, Del. Then there were none but wooden sailing vessels until the brig Novelty was built at Boston, Mass., in 1868, and the bark Iron Age constructed in 1869 for Tupper and Beattie of New York. The sloop yacht Vinder was then built in 1871 at Chester, Pa., by Reanie Son and Archibold; and in 1879 the yacht Mischief was built at Wilmington, Del.

The three-masted schooner Josephine followed in 1880, being built by William Cramp and Sons Company. Then there came much larger vessels in the Tillie E. Starbuck, built in 1883 by John Roach and Son at Chester, Pa.; and in the same year by Gorringe and Company, as the American Shipbuilding Company, the T. F. Oakes. These vessels were about 2,000 tons register each.

The world's recorded tonnage of merchant sailing vessels in 1850 totaled 7,701,885; of which 3,396,650 tons were British; 3,009,507 tons American; 674,228 tons French; 298,315 tons Norwegian; 289,870 Dutch, and 33,315 Belgian.

In 1900, with more complete records, the total was 9,167,620, distributed thus: United States, 2,507,042 tons; United Kingdom, 2,096,408 tons; Norway, 1,002,675 tons; France, 636,081 tons; Germany. 593,770 tons; Italy, 568,164 tons; Japan, 320,572 tons; Sweden, 288,687 tons; Finland, 287,154 tons; Russia, 269,460 tons; Greece, 175,867 tons; Denmark, 158,303 tons; Spain, 95,187 tons; Holland, 78,493 tons; Portugal, 43,874 tons; Austria-Hungary, 25,342 tons; China, 20,541 tons.

In 1911, the latest year for which complete figures are available, the total of the merchant sailing marine was 7,454,189 tons, distributed as follows: United States, 2,564,721 tons; United Kingdom, 962,718 tons; Norway, 738,197 tons; France, 624,521 tons; Germany, 510,059 tons; Japan, 451,529 tons; Italy, 410,791 tons; Finland, 327,625 tons; Russia, 254,330 tons; Sweden, 154,968 tons; Greece (1910), 145,284 tons; Denmark, 124,510 tons; Spain, 44,325 tons; Portugal, 43,844 tons; Holland, 42,312 tons; Austria-Hungary, 32,871 tons; China, 15,679 tons.

A. comparison of decades shows that the zenith figures of the sailing fleets of the several maritime nations were as follows: United States, 1861. 4,662,669 tons; United Kingdom, 1870, 4,577,855 tons; Norway, 1890, 1,502,594 tons; Italy, 1870, 980,054 tons; Germany, 1880, 965,767 tons; France, 1860, 928,000 tons; Sweden, 1880, 461,593 tons; Holland, 1860, 423,790 tons; Greece, 1870, 398,703 tons; Russia, 1880, 378,894 tons; Finland, 1911, 327,625 tons; Spain. 1880, 326,438 tons; Austria-Hungary, 1870, 279,400 tons; Denmark, 1880, 197,509 tons; Portugal, 1900, 57,925 tons; Belgium, 1850, 33,315 tons.

A comparison of these figures will give a measurably accurate view of the rise and fall of the sailing vessel in the principal maritime countries.

In the United States the zenith of the building of sailing ships was reached in 1855, when 1,781 vessels, aggregating 510,690 tons, were launched. Of these, 381 were ships, 126 were brigs, 605 were schooners and 669 were sloops.

On 30 June 1917 there were on the register of the United States 134 square-rigged vessels; 82 of these being American built and 52 built abroad. These were 38 ships totaling 77,863 tons; 55 barks, totaling 68,993 tons; 38 barkentines, totaling 37,987 tons, and 3 brigs and brigantines, totaling 940 tons. The materials of which these vessels were built were: Of wood, 81; of iron, 28; of steel, 25.

The sailing vessels of the world, of 100 tons and upward in the year ended 30 June 1922,

were recorded by Lloyd's Register as 4,680 in number and of the aggregate of 3,027,834 tons. Of the whole number 1,058 were British; 3,554 Russian; 1,149 American; 190 German; 963 Turkish; 397 Italian; 223 Swedish; 371 French; 136 Norwegian; 200 Danish; 18 Greek; 50 Brazilian; 43 Argentinian and 64 Dutch. By far the largest number are of wood.

In 1914 (the year before the war) only 35 sailing vessels, 9,195 tons in all, were launched in British shipyards. In the United States 21 were launched, 4 of steel; totaling 3,262 tons; and 17 of wood, totaling 14,934 tons. The entire output of sailing vessels for the world in 1914 was 225 craft, aggregating 67,368 tons.

See also MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES; NAVAL ARCHITECTURE; SHIPBUILDING; SHIP SUBSIDIES; SHIPPING OF THE WORLD.

Bibliography.-Abbot, W. J., American Merchant Ships and Sailers' (New York 1902); Bates, Ŵ. W., 'American Marine' (Boston 1892); Chatterton, E. K., 'Sailing Ships' (London 1909), and 'Fore and Aft: The Story of the Fore and Aft Rig) (Philadelphia 1912); Clark, A. H., The Clipper Ship Era' (New York 1912); Holmes, Sir G. C. V., Ancient and Modern Ships' (London 1900); Kirkaldy, A. W., British Shipping' (London 1914); Marvin, W. L., The American Merchant Marine (New York 1902); Spears, J. R., 'The Story of the American Merchant Marine' (New York 1910).

J. H. MORRISON,

Author of 'History of American Steam Navigation.

SAILOR'S CHOICE, the name of several excellent food fishes taken on the eastern and southeastern coasts of the United States, which are of small size and belong to the family of grunters. The best known, probably, is Orthopristis chrysopterus, also called pigfish, and especially common in the Gulf of Mexico. It is regarded as the best pan-fish of the region.

SAILOR'S CREEK, Battle of, the last great battle of the Civil War in the East. Sheridan says that it was "one of the severest conflicts of the war so overshadowed by the stirring events of the surrender, three days later, that the battle has never been accorded the prominence it deserves." When General Lee abandoned Richmond and Petersburg on the night of 2 April 1865, he ordered the concentration of his army at Amelia Court House, about 30 miles west of Petersburg, and it had collected at that point by noon of the 5th. On the night of the 5th Sheridan's cavalry and the Second, Fifth and Sixth corps of the army of the Potomac were at or near Jetersville, under orders to march early next morning on Amelia Court House. General Meade began the advance at 8.30 A.M., and when four miles out of Jetersville, Humphreys' Second corps, on the left, discovered that Lee was moving westward, passing by the flank of the Union army. The advance on Amelia Court House was suspended, and the army faced about; the Second corps was ordered to move on Deatonsville; the Fifth through Painesville, on the right of the Second; and the Sixth through Jetersville to the left of the Second. Sheridan's cavalry moved on the extreme left parallel to the Confederate line of

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retreat, impeding the march of the column wherever practicable, but Longstreet's corps succeeded in reaching Rice's Station, on the Lynchburg road, where he awaited the corps of R. H. Anderson, Ewell and John B. Gordon, the lastnamed commanding the rear-guard. The Second corps was checked at Flat Creek by the destruction of the bridge, but, soon repairing it, overtook Gordon and kept up a running fight with him for 14 miles, carrying several lightly intrenched positions, and capturing prisoners, colors, and wagons. The pursuit continued to Parkinson's Mill, on Sailor's Creek, where Gordon made a stand, but was soon driven across the creek, losing three guns, 13 colors, several hundred prisoners, and a large part of the trains of Lee's army. He attempted another stand beyond the creek, but fell back as Humphreys crossed, and marched for High Bridge. Pursuit ended at night. During the day the Second corps had captured 1,700 prisoners, four guns, 13 colors, and several hundred wagons and ambulances. While the Second corps was engaging Gordon, the Sixth corps, with the cavalry commands of Merritt and Crook, had come up some three miles to the left and overthrown the corps of R. H. Anderson and Ewell. Custer's division had interposed between Ewell and Gordon, destroying 400 wagons and taking prisoners and 16 guns; and Crook, moving rapidly to the left, found R. H. Anderson's command posted on high ground behind breastworks running across the Rice's Station road, and sent a dismounted brigade to take possession of and form across the road, thus cutting Anderson off from Longstreet. Ewell now proposed to Anderson that they make their way through the woods, around Sheridan's left, and get to Longstreet; but before anything could be done both were attacked. The Sixth corps had opened its artillery upon Ewell's 3,600 men, to which there was no reply, as Ewell was without artillery; and about 5 P.M. two, divisions advanced, crossed Sailor's Creek, and attacked Ewell, who made a most determined resistance and, massing his troops, broke the centre of the Union line, but was checked by the artilleryfire from beyond the creek. The two divisions of the Sixth corps - Seymour's and Wheaton's

wheeled to the left and right respectively, enveloping Ewell's flanks; Stagg's cavalry brigade charged his right; and at the same time Merritt's and Crook's cavalry charged and routed R. H. Anderson's 6,300 men, killing wounding and capturing about 2,600. Ewell, now completely cut off and surrounded, surrendered his entire command. About 250 men of Kershaw's division, serving with him, escaped. Seven general officers were included in the surrender. The total loss of Lee's army was not less than 8,000 men. The Union loss did not exceed 900. Longstreet, who had remained at Rice's Station during the day, waiting for Anderson, Ewell and Gordon to unite with him, marched as soon as night set in, with Fields'. Heth's and Wilcox's divisions, for Farmville. (See FARMVILLE AND HIGH BRIDGE). Consult Official Records) (Vol. XLVI); Humphreys, "The Virginia Campaign of 1864-65'; Walker, 'History of the Second Army Corps'; Grant, Personal Memoirs> (Vol. II); Sheridan, 'Personal Memoirs' (Vol. II).

E. A. CARMAN.

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SAILORS' SNUG HARBOR, a home for aged sailors on Staten Island, N. Y., established by Captain Richard Randall in 1800. The home is under government supervision and is in charge of a naval commander.

SAINFOIN, sān'foin, or ESPARSETTE, a leguminous plant (Onobrychis sativa), originating. in the Mediterranean countries and cultivated for centuries. The stem is about two feet high, with pinnate leaves composed of small leaflets. The pea-like flowers are rather large and of a showy pink color, and are disposed in short spikes, on long axillary peduncles. It is nutritious fodder, well liked by livestock, especially sheep. It makes good hay, and will grow on light, warm, chalky soils, where other pasturage does not thrive; the roots are long-lived and are useful for binding light soils, while the foliage not only shades the pastures, but makes a good crop for plowing under. It is also recommended as a honeyproducing plant for bee pastures.

SAINT, a person eminent for piety and other virtues. In the books of Scripture, both the Old and the New Testament, the whole body of the faithful people are called saints (2 Chron. vi. 41; Ps. xxxi, 3; Hebr. xiii, 14, "Salute all the saints"; Eph. i, 1, "the saints at Ephesus.") It is customary to give the title saint to all the apostles, evangelists and other holy persons, men and women, named in the New Testament, to most of the Fathers of the Church, to all the martyrs. In the Church of Rome the title of saint is formally and authoritatively bestowed on servants of God who in their lifetime were eminent for their Christian virtues and graces, and whose sanctity has been proved by miracles after their death (see CANONIZATION; BEATIFICATION); but thousands of saints are honored by that church, who lived in early times before the process of canonization was thought of. Intercession by the saints in heaven and invocation of the saints are articles of belief in the Catholic. Church, Eastern and Western, as also in the schismatical Eastern churches: but that doctrine is repudiated by all the Protestant churches. The teaching of the Church of Rome, as proclaimed by the Council of Trent, is that the saints reigning with Christ "offer to God their prayers on behalf of men"; that it is good and useful "to call upon them with supplication," and, in order to obtain benefits from God through Jesus Christ, "to have recourse to their prayers, help and aid." Here the Church's doctrine regarding both intercession and invocation of saints is defined. Catholic divines find full warrant for this belief in the Christian sacred books; for the doctrine of intercession, in 1 Cor. xii, 12, where the unity of the Christian society is enforced; in James v, 16, where the prayer of the righteous is lauded; in Eph. vi, 18, and 1 Tim. ii, 1, where Saint Paul sets such store on the prayers of his fellow Christians; and it is asked: Can it be that the souls which have gone to God no longer exercise this kind of charity for their brethren on earth? If Scripture were silent on this question, the practice of the Church in all ages would suffice to remove all doubt as to the Apostolic origin of the belief in the intercession of saints. For the doctrine of the invocation of saints, theologians quote the word of Jesus Christ, that the

angels in heaven rejoice when a sinner repents of his sin (Luke xv, 7). It were superfluous to cite the usage of the Catholic Church regarding invocation of saints: it began with the beginning of Christianity itself.

SAINT, The ('Der Heilige'). "The Saint,' by Conrad F. Meyer (1879), is a short novel, about the length of Silas Marner,' centred around the great quarrel between Henry II and his Chancellor and Primate of England, Thomas Becket. In a broad sense based on history, its psychology is fancifully developed from a medieval legend found by Meyer in 1853 in Thierry's 'Conquest of England' (Book IX), according to which Becket was the son of an Englishman and of the sister of the Kalif of Cordova. The story of Henry's amours with beautiful Rosamond Clifford in the hidden bower suggested the secret palace in which Meyer's Becket rears his daughter Grace to save her from royal lechery. The accidental slaying of Grace after her seduction by the king inspires in Becket a deep-laid plot for revenge under the veil of pretended loyalty and later of saintly devotion when he becomes Primate on Henry's nomination, whereby he drives the king to alternate fits of despair and fury over the loss of political advantages and of the love of his queen and sons. The tragic ending is historical.

The story is put in the mouth of a Swiss bowman, who is supposed to have come on his wanderings to London, where he entered the service of the king and was a minor actor in all the events he relates. The style is vivid, swift and powerful, and the diction of wonderful force and color, suggestive of a Gobelin tapestry, or as Keller said, "brocade." It is Meyer's most finished production, possibly his best. The English_reader will find it curious to compare it with Tennyson's 'Becket. Consult 'Der Heilige (66th ed., Leipzig 1913); American School Edition (ed. Eggert, New York 1907, rad Ferdinand Meyer (Stuttgart 1900); Credwith_critical introduction); Frey, Adolf, 'Conner, Karl, C. F. Meyer, Der Heilige (Berlin 1899); Langmesser, K. F. Meyer (Berlin 1905).

CARL E. Eggert.

SAINT ACHEUL, France, archæological site near Amiens which has given the name acheulian to the paleolithic deposits discovered there, containing flint implements evidencing human industry at a time_corresponding to the second glacial period in France.

SAINT ALBANS, âl'banz, England, in Hertfordshire, 20 miles northwest of London, an ancient borough and market-town, standing on a height above the river Ver. Its abbey is one of the most remarkable Christian temples in England. Only a gateway remains of the original abbey, built in 793 in honor of Saint Alban, the first British Christian martyr. The present abbey has been so often extended and altered that it represents in its architecture many styles and various epochs of history, from the time of the Romans to that of Henry VII. It has the form of a Latin cross, with a length of 547 feet and breadth of 206 feet. Its tower has an elevation of 146 feet, crowned with battlements. Other churches are Saint Michael's, 10th century; Saint Stephen's, with some good Norman features, and Saint Peter's,