agony, during which he displayed the utmost serenity, was finally suffocated in a vapor bath.

"Nothing in life became him like the leaving it." He was undoubtedly an earnest seeker after truth and right. The Roman world was much his debtor for the wise and humane administration of the state during the "golden quinquennium" of Nero; but he lacked real strength of character, and in his connection with Nero too often acquiesced in the doing of positive evil that a greater good might be accomplished. As a man of letters, he is incomparably the most brilliant figure of his time. He was an extremely prolific writer, his subjects are exceedingly varied, the ideas usually nobly conceived and eloquently expressed. In striking contrast to the periodic style of Cicero, he loves short, epigrammatic sentences. He is an expert in the use of every variety of rhetorical ornamentation, which, in harmony with the prevailing taste, he carries to excess. Though by no means a profound thinker, he is broadminded and sympathetic in his presentation of the ethical principles, Stoic in the main, by which man's daily life should be guided. He was, indeed, by certain Fathers of the Church believed to have been a Christian, and there are still extant 14 letters, undoubtedly spurious, of a correspondence with Saint Paul. His moral essays embrace 12 so-called dialogues, 'On Peace of Mind,' 'On Anger,' (On the Shortness of Life, etc.; 3 books On Clemency,' addressed to Nero; 7 On Benefits, and 20 books of 'Letters to Lucilius.' With these may be grouped the seven books of 'Naturales Quæstiones, which handle physics as a basis for ethical reflections. We possess also nine tragedies, composed rather to be read aloud than to be acted, and so rhetorical in substance that, though fine passages are not lacking, they are rather declamations than real poetry. They had, however, a great influence upon the drama of the 16th century.

Bibliography. The best text of the prose works is by F. Haase in the Teubner series (1893–95); of the tragedies, by F. Leo (Berlin 1878-79.) The 'Apocolocyntosis' has been edited by A. P. Ball (New York 1902). Consult also Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire (cc. 50, 52-24); Zeller's 'Eclectics' (London 1883); Farrar's 'Seekers after God' (London 1886).

NELSON G. MCCREA,

Professor of Latin, Columbia University. SENECA INDIANS, Mohegan "Sinnekens," "place of the stones," a tribe belonging to the Iroquois family. Their own name is Tsonondowanenaka, or Tsonondo waka, "people of the great hill or mountain," probably referring to the lofty eminence south of Canandaigua Lake. The term Seneca is a Mohawk rendering of this latter name, which has passed through Dutch to English hands. A member of the famous League of the Iroquois, founded about the year 1570. With the Mohawks and the Onondagas, the Senecas constituted the elder phratry of tribes in the social and political organization of the confederation, while the junior phratry was composed of the Oneidas and the Cayugas. The earliest known council fire of the Seneca people was established south of Lake Canandaigua, while their territory comprised the region environing Seneca and Canan

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daigua lakes and extended westward to Genesee River. As a member of the League, the Senecas were called Honěñninhohoñte, signifying, "They are fixed to a door or door-flap," denotive of the fact that the Seneca people were the political doorkeepers of the League, not because, as commonly asserted they stood at the western frontier of the territory of the confederation, but because being at first averse to joining the League, they were finally persuaded to do so by having the honor of the office of doorkeeper and of official executioner bestowed upon them. Their last two League chiefs or rulers were charged with the duty of ascertaining the good or evil designs of any alien who might seek to enter the jurisdiction of the confederation. In the American Revolution the Senecas espoused the cause of Great Britain against the colonies. Today the Sénecas are represented by several different bodies of people dwelling in diverse places and under various forms of government. About 553 are on the Tonawanda reservation, 1,262 on the Cattaraugus reservation, 1,006 on the Allegany reservation, 10 on the 'Tuscarora reservation, and 6 on the Onondaga reservation, all in New York State; 87 are on the Cornplanter_reservation in Pennsylvania, and 219 on the Grand River reservation in Ontario, Canada; total, 3,143. In addition there are 337 so-called "Senecas" in the Indian Territory, but these are not included with the foregoing, as it is doubtful whether they were ever true Senecas. The earliest estimate of the numbers of the Senecas, in 1660 and 1677, give them about 5,000. In 1825 those in New York were reported at 2,325. Morgan, 25 years later, estimated them at 2,712 with over 200 more on the Grand River reservation in Canada. About the same estimation was given in 1909. Skaniadariio, or HandIroquoian religion in vogue to-day among the some Lake, the founder of the reformed pagan various northern Iroquoian peoples, was a Seneca. On the migration, or probably expulsion, of the Awenrehronon from the headwaters of Genesee River, New York, in 1639, and on the later defeat of the Neutral Nation, about 164950, and of the Eries about 1654-57, the Senecas moved some of their settlements and colonies westward toward Lake Erie and along the Allegheny River. In 1657 there were 11 different alien tribes or peoples represented among the Senecas, thus indicating how well they exercised the right of adoption to replace their great losses in the almost interminable wars of the League, which had then lasted about 75 years. Of the several tribes formerly constituting the League of the Iroquois, the Senecas are the most progressive in the arts and knowledge of civilization. With incidental exceptions, the history of the Senecas previous to the American Revolution is virtually that of the League. See IROQUOIS.

Bibliography. Butterfield, C. W., History of Seneca County) (Sandusky 1848); Conover, G. S., Seneca Villages (Geneva, N. Y., 1889); Doty, L. L., History of Livingston County, New York' (Geneseo 1876); Dutton and Wentworth, 'Memorials of Seneca Indians' (Boston 1840); Gernier, J., 'Des missions de la Conception, etc.' (Quebec 1858); Harris, G. H., "The Indian Bread Root of the Senecas' (New York 1890); Hawley, C., 'Early Chapters of Seneca History' (Auburn, N. Y., 1884); Mar

W., 'Invention of Lithography) (New York 1911).

SENEFELDER, Leopold, Austrian physician: b. Vienna, 25 Sept. 1864. He was educated at the Preparatory Seminary of Mariaschein, the Mies Gymnasium, Bohemia, and the University of Vienna. In 1888-89 he served as interne at the Garnisons-Spitale No. 1, Vienna, was physician to the reserves and assistant physician at Rudolf Hospital, Vienna, in 1889-91. He established a practice at Sankt Pölten, Lower Austria, in 1892 and at Vienna from 1893 to 1905. After 1908 he was lecturer on the history of medicine at the University of Vienna. In 1902 Dr. Senefelder accompanied Cardinal Gruscha to the Jubilee Celebration at Rome. He is librarian and archivist of the Vienna College of Physicians and has published Anathema esto? (1892); Die Katakomben bei St. Stephen (1902); Die kaiserliche königliche Weiberstrafenstalt in WienerNeudorf (1903); Dispensatorium pro pharmacopoeis Viennensibus in Austria (1907); 'Acta Facultatis medicæ universitatis Vindobonensis (Vols., IV, V, VI, 1908-11). He collaborated in Geschichte der Stadt Wien' (1904) and contributed to various periodicals.

SENEGAL, sen-e-gâl', West Africa, (1) a river which flows into the Atlantic near Saint Louis, the capital of the French colony of Senegal, in lat. 15° 48′ N. It is formed by the union of the Hafing and the Bakhoi, at Bafulabé, the former rising in the Futa-Jallon Mountains, southwest of Timbo, and the latter near Wosebugu. From the opposite or western side of the mountain in which the Bafing rises springs also the Falemé, another great branch of the Senegal, which runs north in a more direct course until it joins the united head streams above Bakel. The Senegal is about 1,000 miles long, and is navigable up to the cataracts of Félou in Kassan, about 700 miles from its mouth. A river service from Saint Louis to Kayes, 460 miles, is maintained during the flood season, and a railway line has been built from Kayes to Bafulabé (82 miles), and is being extended to Bamaku and Tulimandis on the Niger. The delta is marked by numerous marigots or channels which disperse its waters through the adjacent plains; and its mouth is dangerously barred, so as to be accessible only for small vessels in the dry season. Dredging operations are in progress to facilitate navigation. (2) A French colonial possession comprised in the government-general of French West Africa, named after the river and comprising the coastal strip from the British colony of Cambia north to Cape Blanco and extending inland to the French military territories of Niger and Mauretania. By a decree issued in 1899 the colony of Senegal was extended so as to include the western part of the former French Sudan territory. The area of Senegal is now about 74,012 square miles. The whole is under a lieutenant-governor, who has direct jurisdiction in the communes of Saint Louis, the capital, on the coast, Dakar, the chief port, near Cape Verde, Goree and Rufisque. Several other districts are under administrators. The colony is represented in the French Chamber by one deputy. Dakar is fortified, and there is a military force of about 3,000 men, nearly

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one-half of them natives. The budget of the directly administered territory in 1916 amounted to $1,280,909, and the local budget, $413,916. All towns having a sufficiently numerous European or assimilated native population have urban schools, giving the same instruction as the French primary schools, modified to suit local requirements. At Dakar there is a superior technical school. At Saint Louis are a normal school for the training of native teachers, of interpreters, kaids (native judges) and chiefs' sons. There is a Mussulman superior school at Saint Louis with 20 pupils, and there is a large hospital for natives at Dakar. Millet, maize and rice are cultivated by the natives; the natural products include gums, castor-beans, earth-nuts, cocoanuts, rubber and kola. A salt industry is being developed. Cattle, sheep, goats and camels are domesticated, and some weaving, pottery-making and other industries are carried on. In 1913 the imports were valued at over $16,000,000, and the exports, consisting chiefly of earthnuts, gums and rubber, at over $14,000,000, the trade being chiefly with France, although steamers ply also to Liverpool and Hamburg. In 1916 751 miles of railway line were open, the chief line being the coast line between Dakar, Rufisque and Saint Louis. In the same year there were also 1,494 miles of telegraph and 100 miles of telephone line in operation. A submarine cable connects Dakar with Brest. There is a river service on the Senegal from Saint Louis to Kayes (490 miles). Dakar has regular communication with French ports by the steamers of four French lines, and also with Liverpool and Hamburg. The French first settled Senegal in 1637. It was taken by the English in 1756, retaken by the French in 1779 and subsequently held by the English until the peace of 1814. The settlements did not flourish until the appointment of General Faidherbe as governor in 1854. He began a vigorous line of action, subdued the Berber chiefs who prevented the French advance inland and annexed their territories. This policy was pursued in the same spirit by subsequent governors; districts were annexed and protectorates proclaimed with extraordinary rapidity, though the two powerful chiefs Ahmadou and Samory occasioned a great deal of trouble, 1887-90. Pop. 1,282,566. Consult Lasnet et al., 'Une mission au Sénégal, ethnographique, botanique? (Paris 1900).

SENEGAL-NIGER, Upper, French colony forming part of the government-general of French West Africa. It is bounded on the north by the Algerian sphere; on the west by the Felémé River and the frontier of French Guinea; on the south by the frontiers of the Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Togoland and Dahomey, and now includes Fada-N'Gourma and Say, and on the east by the military colony of the Niger. It, therefore, includes the valley of the Upper Senegal, more than two-thirds of the course of the Niger, the whole of the countries enclosed in the great Bend and a large part of the Sahara to the Algerian sphere of influence. The area is about 568,273 square miles with a population in 1914 of about 5,778,296 natives and 1,269 Europeans. The colony was formed in 1904 from the territories of Sene

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gambia and the Niger, less the Senegal Protectorate, which was restored to Senegal. At the same time the military territories were broken up and became a part of the colony. The first military territory was incorporated in Upper Senegal-Niger, and is administered by a colonel under the authority of the military governor; the second territory was handed over to the civil administration and the third is still an autonomous unit. Upper Senegal-Niger is entirely under civil administration, with the same judicial and educational systems as the other colonies comprised in the governmentgeneral. The budget of the colony for 1916 amounted to $1,788,641; the local budget for 1914 was $1,918,981. The most important and populous towns are Bobo-Dioulasso (8,736 inhabitants), Bamako, the capital (6,553), Sikesso (7,544), Segou (6,550), Kayes (5,900). All the principal towns have urban schools. There is a professional school at Kayes and a school for sons of chiefs. There is a Mussulman superior school at Timbuktu (5,100 inhabitants), which has 67 pupils. The natives cultivate ground nuts, maize, millet, cotton and rice; rubber and kariti are also produced. principal native industries are pottery, jewelry, brick and leather-making and weaving. Cottons, foodstuffs and metal work form the chief items of import, while cattle, ground nuts, hides, wool and rubber are exported. In 1912 there were 4,050 miles of telegraph line and 74 miles of telephone line. The Senegal-Niger Railway extends from Kayes to Koulikoro, a distance of 349 miles. Small steamboats ply between Koulikoro and Timbuktu. In 1914 the imports into Upper Senegal were valued at $1,079,426, and the exports amounted only to $462,164. The Niger (territory) is farther inland than Upper Senegal, therefore, more remote from the seaports through which all West African trade must pass; in consequence the over-seas trade is inconsiderable. The value of the imports into the Niger in 1914 amounted to $193,117, the principal articles, in addition to government purchases, being cotton goods and tobacco; the exports reached $117,656 in the same year and consisted mainly of cattle, hides, ostrich feathers, native salt and tanned sheep and goat skins. Consult Lenfant, Le Niger (Paris 1903); id., 'La grande route du Chad' (ib. 1904).

SENEGAMBIA, sen-e-găm'bi-a, West Africa, so named from the Senegal and Gambia rivers (qq.v.), an extensive region comprising the countries between lat. 10° and 17° N.; long. 4° and 17° 30′ W.; bounded on the north by the Sahara, south by Guinea and west by the Atlantic. The area is estimated at from 400,000 to 700,000 square miles, and is almost wholly under French influence, with the exception of Bissagos Island and some coast territory at the mouth of the Rio Grande River, belonging to Portugal, and the British Gambia colony at the mouth of the Gambia. The name Senegambia is not used by the French, who call their colony and protectorate Senegal (q.v.). The western portion of the country is a low, flat and, to a great extent, swampy plain. East of this the country is mountainous, and the valleys run north and south. The principal rivers are the Senegal, the Gambia, the Jeba or Rio Grande and the Nuñez. In the level tract bor

dering the coast the rivers during floods overflow their banks, inundating the plains, and become connected with one another by means of canals. On the lower Senegal, so far as the inundation reaches, vegetation is very luxuriant. Rice, maize and other grains, with bananas, manioc and yams, are cultivated equally on the hills and plains. The orange, citron and other fruits introduced by the Portuguese are now extensively cultivated on the hills. Wild animals comprise the elephant, hippopotamus, monkey, antelope, gazelle, lion, panther, leopard, hyena, jackal, crocodile, etc. The climate is intensely hot and unhealthful for Europeans. The inhabitants are of many races, the principal being the Yolofs, Foolahs and Mandingoes. These negro tribes inhabit for the most part Middle Senegambia, between the Senegal and the Gambia. Upper Senegambia, to the north of the Senegal, is largely inhabited by Moors, who carry on an extensive trade in gum, etc., with the Europeans. The total population is estimated at 12,000,000.

SENEY, se'ni, George Ingraham, American banker: b. Astoria, Long Island, N. Y., 12 May 1826; d. New York, 7 April 1893. He was educated at the Wesleyan University and at the University of the City of New York where he was graduated in 1847. He engaged in the banking business and in 1877-84 was president of the Metropolitan Bank, New York. He lost heavily at the time of the bank's failure in 1884, but later succeeded in partially re-establishing himself financially. Before 1884 his benefactions amounted to about $2,000,000. He gave $500,000 to establish the Seney Hospital in Brooklyn and $500,000 to both the Wesleyan University and the Methodist Orphan Asylum in Brooklyn. He aiso gave $250,000 to Emory College and the Wesleyan Female College, Macon, Ga., and liberal sums to other public institutions. He sold his famous collection of paintings at auction in 1885, receiving $406,910 for them. From a later collection he gave 20 valuable paintings to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

SENIJEXTEE. See SALISHAN INDIANS. SENILE DISEASES. See OLD AGE AND ITS DISEASES.

SENILITY. To obtain a clear conception of senility we must consider old age as consisting of two periods, the presenile and the senile. Physiologically these periods exist and are divided by a critical period called the senile climacteric which occurs about the 70th year. This period corresponds to puberty during the period of development and the menopause and the male climacteric during the period of maturity. The senile climacteric, like the male climacteric, usually causes so little distress that it passes unnoticed. Occasionally those around the aged person notice marked changes in mentality, more profound physical changes, greater debility, while some prominent manifestations of senility will appear less pronounced. In some cases the climacteric changes are very evident and the person passes rapidly from a condition of bright middle-aged mental and physical activity into a state of senile decrepitude.

During the senile climacteric the organs and tissues which have degenerated slowly now

break down rapidly and the degenerative processes which have gone on rapidly before become less active. There is really a readjustment in the degenerative processes and this is followed by the progressive degeneration of all the organs and tissues and a diminution in their functions.

The toute ensemble of senility is characteristic. The stature is diminished through the greater curvature of the spinal column, flattening of the pelvis, depression of the heads of the femurs and, generally, broken-down arches. A further apparent diminution in stature is occasioned by the attitude of aged persons. The head sinks down and forward, the knees are bent to maintain equilibrium and there is a general slouching appearance which is partly relieved when a cane is used. The skin becomes pale and thin and, owing to the waste of subcutaneous fat and muscle, it becomes flabby, wrinkled and falls into folds. The teeth fall out, the alveolar process in which the teeth are imbedded wastes and there is a waste of the bone substance of the lower jaw. When the jaws are now closed the lower jaw is drawn further up to meet the upper jaw and the small, weazened face of the aged is produced. The eyes become dull and there is generally a gray ring called the arcus senilis around the iris. The nose and ears become thin and pale, the lips become flaccid and darker in hue, the color being a fair indication of the extent of the blood impairment. The hair rapidly whitens or falls out but there is often a growth of hair in unusual places as in the ears, nose, chin and on the upper lip of women, etc.

The face is expressionless and it is seldom roused to reflect interest or emotion.

The mental changes in senility are peculiar. In those who have had little intelligence or education there is a gradual diminution in all mental faculties. Memory fails until the event of a moment ago is forgotten, reason and judgment are lost, interest can be aroused with difficulty and only with greater difficulty can it be maintained; only the most powerful sensory impressions are received, interpreted and get responses. The emotions are dulled, there is neither fear nor hope, joy nor sorrow, and the individual will smile or weep without apparent cause. Usually he is apathetic, gradually lapsing into a state of complete amentia in which even the fundamental instinct of selfpreservation is lost.

The intelligent, educated person generally retains reason and judgment but the mind is less active and brain fag develops rapidly. Memory is impaired, recollections of early events coming unbidden while later events cannot be recalled by any effort of the will. Old persons find it difficult to displace old ideas, habits and hobbies by new ones, and they are, therefore, called old-fashioned. Imagination

sometimes develops delusions, such delusions always possessing the element of self-aggrandizement. It is difficult to arouse interest or maintain attention. Under some extraordinary stimulus mental acuity will be revived but this lasts only a short time and is followed by mental exhaustion. Weak sensations are not received owing to the impairment of the sensory organs but the mind correctly interprets sensations that it does receive. The emotions

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are dulled, there is seldom hope or joy, but usually there is a depressed, hopeless resignation to the inevitable. Sometimes religious teachings overcome the haunting fear of death, in some cases a materialistic philosophy makes the mind indifferent to death. Usually as the mind becomes weaker the fear of death and all other fears diminish; it is doubtful, however, if there is developed an instinct for death as Metchnikoff assumed.

Some individuals possess remarkable mental powers in old age. A critical study of the mentality of such individuals reveals in almost every case a concentration of mental faculties in one channel or direction while in every other direction there is profound mental impairment. The absent-mindedness and other peculiarities of these aged geniuses are really evidences of mental impairment. In the rare cases where the mental faculties retain their power with little or no impairment, the physical changes are slight and the whole process of senile involution is apparently retarded.

A remarkable phenomenon in senility is the approximation of the sexes toward a neuter type. The female chest gradually approaches the senile male chest in shape and the male pelvis becomes flattened until it resembles the female pelvis. In the male the hair on the face becomes thin while there is a growth of hair on the face of the female. His voice becomes higher, her voice becomes lower in pitch. The small weazened face and the dull expression give to both a similarity in features. It is a common observation that old couples resemble each other and through long association they exhibit similar mental traits. This phase of senility has not been sufficiently studied. While imagination undoubtedly plays a part in noting this resemblance it is in many cases sufficiently marked to attract attention. Virilescence usually begins soon after the menopause; its counterpart in the male is rarely observed before the period of senility. See OLD AGE.

I. L. NASCHER, M.D., Author of Diseases of Old Age and Their Treatment.

SENIOR, se'nyor, Nassau William, English political economist: b. Compton, 26 Sept. 1790; d. Kensington Gore, London, 4 June 1864. He was graduated from Eton and from Oxford, and in 1819 was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. He was the first professor of political economy at Oxford 1825-30; was appointed a master in chancery in 1836 and resumed his chair at Oxford in 1847. Of his writings, which comprise a number of excellent treatises on political economy, mention may be made of An Outline of the Science of Political Economy) (1836); Political Economy (1850); (Essays on Fiction (1864); and Historical and Philosophical Essays' (2 vols., 1865).

SENLAC, sen'lăk, or HASTINGS, Battle of, the one battle in the Norman conquest of England. It was fought 14 Oct. 1066 at Senlac Hill, a few miles from Hastings, between William, Duke of Normandy, and Harold II (q.v.), king of England. Harold's fortified position was attacked at 9 A.M. by the Norman army in three divisions, strong in cavalry and archers, the centre led by William in person. The English made a stout resistance with their battle