widow, who died of grief 350 B.C., built his tomb, which must have been of rare magnificence to have given its name Mausoleum to ornate graves of the dead to our day.

The pyramids of Egypt still survive as wonders. These tombs of the Pharaohs, marred by age and partly destroyed by earthquakes, arouse no less wonderment, while countless volumes have been written on their origin and history, with curious speculation as to the uses for which they were designed. The masonry of the great Pyramid of Cheops, as it is termed, has been worn out at top by time, and the sides, which once were smoothly slanting, now form a series of steps, due also to time and the elements. The legend of the Colossus straddling the harbor of Rhodes with its legs, is very picturesque but it had no other basis than popular fancy. It was in reality a huge bronze image of Apollo, about the height of New York's Statue of Liberty, 105 feet. Erected about 200 B.C. on the shore at the entrance to the harbor of Rhodes, it was overthrown by an earthquake, its fragments in later decades being bought and carried away on camels by traders of the time, ready as today to barter in junk. How many modern wonders of art, science and invention are likely to survive a thousand years and more, when fame to-day is as rapidly lost as it is acquired and miracles of achievement occur so often that they have ceased to be miracles?

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, a war between Prussia and other European powers (1756–63). By the treaties of peace concluded at Breslau 28 July 1742, and at Dresden 25 Dec. 1745, Maria Theresa of Austria ceded to King Frederick II six principalities of Silesia and the county of Gla tz. In the hope of recovering them she concluded an alliance with Elizabeth, empress of Russia, brought over to her cause the king of Poland and elector of Saxony, Augustus III, and attempted to form a closer union with France. Meanwhile a dispute had arisen between Great Britain and France relating to their American boundary, and it broke out in 1755 into open hostilities. The king of England concluded an alliance with Prussia; and some months after France made a league with the court of Vienna. All the proceedings of the Russian, Austrian and Saxon courts were discovered to Frederick, who resolved to anticipate his enemies. In August 1756, he invaded Saxony, occupied the capital, which had been deserted by the court, Leipzig, Wittenberg and Dresden; took possession of the documents necessary to justify his conduct which he found in the archives of the cabinet in the last city, and invested the Saxon army in their fortified camp at Pirna. Meanwhile Field-Marshal Browne advanced from Bohemia with an army to liberate Saxony; but Frederick was able to check his advance, and the Saxons, 14,000 strong, were forced to surrender 15 October. The inferior officers and common soldiers were compelled to enter the Prussian service; but they soon deserted, making their escape to Poland, where the Saxon court resided during the whole war. Such was the end of the first campaign, and the Prussians remained through the winter in Saxony and Silesia. Frederick's invasion of Saxony was pronounced to be a violation of the Treaty of Westphalia, and

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France, as one of the guarantors of that treaty, now took part in the struggle. Sweden and Russia adopted a similar course. In the diet at Ratisbon, held in January 1757, war was also declared on the part of the empire against Prussia.

Thus in 1757 Austria, Russia, France, Sweden and the German empire were in arms against Frederick, while he had no_ally but England and a few German states (Brunswick, HesseCassel and Gotha, besides, of course, Hanover). In order to be again beforehand with his enemies, Frederick (April 1757) marched into Bohemia, and on the 6th of May a bloody battle was fought at Prague, in which the Prussians conquered, but lost their distinguished general, Schwerin. The greatest part of the vanquished Austrian army threw itself into the city of Prague, to which the king immediately laid siege. But the defeat of Frederick by the Austrians under Daun, at Kollin, in the following month, 18 June, deprived the former of all his advantages. He was forced to raise the siege of Prague, and to retreat to Saxony and Lusatia. Little more than a month later, 26 July, the Duke of Cumberland, commanding the German allies of Frederick, was defeated at Hastenbeck on the Weser, in the south of Hanover, by the more numerous army of the French; whereupon the victors made preparations for taking up winter quarters with the imperial army in Saxony. The two armies had already united and advanced as far as the Saale, the French under the command of the incapable Prince Soubise, a favorite of the Marquise de Pompadour, when Frederick marched against them, and fought at Rossbach, a village between Merseburg and Weissenfels, that memorable battle, in which both the French and the imperial armies were defeated, and found safety only in a hasty flight 5 November. The defeated armies retired into winter quarters at a distance, and the possession of Saxony was secured to the king. Upon this Frederick hurried back to Silesia, which was now occupied by the Austrians. With a small army, fatigued with a long march, he defeated at Leuthen a force twice as great, under Daun, 5 December. By this victory Frederick recovered Silesia, and he was now more formidable to his foes than ever; for not only had he been victorious himself, but while he had been thus occupied in the south and west his general Lehwald had successfully repelled the Swedes and Russians on the north and east.

The third campaign was opened in February 1758, by Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, who was now at the head of the allied armies, in the place of the Duke of Cumberland, and opposed the French in Lower Saxony and Westphalia. His nephew, the hereditary prince, afterward Duke of Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, commanded under him. Duke Ferdinand made himself master of the Weser, expelled the French, under Clermont, from Lower Saxony and Westphalia, and defeated them 23 June at Krefeld. He then returned over the Rhine to Hesse, where Soubise was stationed with a French army, and whither Clermont followed him. Ferdinand, in the meanwhile strengthened by 12,000 British troops, forced the two hostile bodies to retire over the Main and the Rhine, where they went into winter quarters. Mean

while the Russians, under Bestucheff, had advanced as far as the Oder; and subsequently Fermor, who superseded Bestucheff, occupied east Prussia, and then moved into Brandenburg, spreading devastation on his way. At this juncture Frederick made a masterly march to the Oder, and toward the end of August engaged the Russians at Zorndorf, in the north of Brandenburg, where he gained a sanguinary victory, which forced the Russians to retreat to Poland. After this he again turned his attention to Saxony, where his brother Prince Henry was no longer able to resist the Austrians. He encamped at Hochkirch, but here he was surprised by Daun in the night of 14 October and suffered a total defeat. He nevertheless sucIceeded with the remains of his army in effecting a junction with his brother, after which he again drove the enemy out of Silesia and Saxony. At the close of the campaign the king saw all his dominions except Prussia proper free from the enemy. In France there was a general wish for peace; but Louis XV and his mistress, the Marchioness de Pompadour, were bent on continuing the war. A new alliance was therefore concluded with Austria 30 Dec. 1758. Frederick, however, had also obtained a new treaty with Great Britain, which promised him a large yearly subsidy. Yet he determined in the coming campaign to act with his main army as much as possible on the defensive and to commit aggressive movements to detached corps.

The campaign was opened in March 1759, Prince Henry marching into Bohemia, where he dispersed the hostile forces, and captured immense quantities of military stores. He then entered Franconia, and put the inactive imperial forces to flight. At the same time the Prussian general Dohna drove back the Swedes once more to Stralsund, and managed to keep the Russians for a time in check. But when the Russians pressed forward in ever-increasing numbers under Soltikoff, Dohna found himself obliged to give way. Frederick then gave his command to General Wedel, who received orders to prevent the junction between the Russians and Austrians at all costs, and accordingly on 23 July attacked the Russians at Kay, near Züllichau, in the east of Brandenburg. His attack was unsuccessful, and the Russians after their victory advanced to Frankfort-on-theOder. Frederick now hastened in person to his electoral dominions, and on 12 August attacked the Russians at Kunersdorf, near Frankfort, and had already defeated them when the victory was snatched from him by the Austrians, under Laudon, who inflicted on him a defeat such as he had never before sustained. The Russians purchased their victory dearly, and they made no use of it. Yet Frederick's position was extremely dangerous; indeed, he began to apprehend an unfortunate issue of the war. The Russians were victorious in his hereditary states; Daun was in Lusatia with a large army, and Saxony was overrun by the imperial troops. The Austrians and Russians wished to unite, but Prince Henry deprived the former of their magazines, and thus obliged them to retreat; and Frederick anticipated the Russians in their march to Silesia, and compelled them to retire to Poland. In the west Frederick's allies had been more successful. They had, indeed, been able to do but little at the beginning of the campaign. The French had taken Frankfort-on

the-Main by surprise during the winter, and the plan for recovering the city was frustrated by the failure of the attack on Bergen 13 April. But 1 August, Ferdinand_gained a decisive victory at Minden over the French troops under Contades and Broglio. On the same day the hereditary Prince of Brunswick likewise defeated the French at Gohfeld, and they were driven over the Lahn on one side and over the Rhine on the other. The Swedes also, who, after the battle of Kunersdorf, when Prussian Pomerania was destitute of troops, invaded that country, were driven by Manteuffel and Platen under the cannon of Stralsund. Thus, in spite of all his mishaps, Frederick's fortunes were still in the ascendant at the end of the campaign.

The campaign of 1760 seemed at first to forbode ill success to Frederick. While he himself was engaged in Saxony, the brave General Fouqué suffered a defeat in Silesia, in consequence of which the Austrians occupied the whole land. Frederick thereupon gave up Saxony in order to recover Silesia. With 30,000 Prussians he marched into that province, and intrenched himself at Liegnitz. Here on 15 August he defeated Laudon, and thereby effected his purpose of recovering Silesia, but he was unable to prevent Austrian and Russian troops from breaking into Brandenburg and laying waste his hereditary dominions. Frederick hastened thither to cut off the enemy, but not finding them there he returned to Saxony, where the imperial forces were stationed, and Daun and Lascy had united. At Torgau, on the Elbe, he attacked the enemy 3 November, defeated them in a bloody engagement, and then went into winter quarters in Saxony. The Russians were also forced to raise the siege of Colberg and to retire to Poland. The allied forces, under Ferdinand of Brunswick, defeated the French 31 July at Marburg; but the latter remained in Hesse.

In the opening of the next campaign 11 Feb. 1761 Ferdinand attacked the French in their quarters; they fled, losing many of their fortifications and magazines. A corps of French and Saxon troops was defeated 14 February at Langensalza: but the allies were obliged to raise the siege of Ziegenhain, Marburg and Cassel with loss, and the French once more became masters of all Hesse, and had an unobstructed passage to Hanover. The proposals of peace now made by Britain and Prussia were not accepted, and Frederick endeavored to protect Silesia against the Austrians and Russians, who had united in August at Striegau. He and his allies, however, met with reverses at Schweidnitz, Colberg and elsewhere, and despite some successes (as at Villingshausen) Frederick felt himself in a desperate condition. But at the very time when Frederick's distress was greatest, Elizabeth, the empress of Russia, died 5 Jan. 1762, and her successor, Peter III, concluded with him 5 May the Peace of Saint Petersburg. Sweden likewise made peace with Prussia, and the Russian emperor sent a body of troops to aid the Prussians. But the emperor's early death broke the alliance with Frederick, and his successor, Catharine II, recalled the Russian troops from the Prussian service. Frederick, however, was delivered from one dangerous enemy, and had gained an important preponderance of strength over the rest. After recovering Schweidnitz and providing for the defense

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of Silesia, he marched to Saxony. On 29 October an important victory was gained over the Austrian and imperial troops at Freiberg, and the king now concluded an armistice with the Austrians; but it related only to Saxony and Silesia. Under Duke Ferdinand and the hereditary prince of Brunswick the allies then began unsuccessfully, the campaign of 1762 against the French; but the latter were defeated 24 June at Wilhelmsthal, and driven from their fortified camp at Cassel. Cassel itself was besieged, and 1 November surrendered to the allies. Two days after this the preliminaries of peace between Britain and France were signed, and the peace itself was confirmed at Paris 10 Feb. 1763. After a short negotiation Frederick concluded a peace with Austria and Saxony at Hubertsburg, 15 February, by which each power received again all the territories it had possessed before the war. The simultaneous struggle between Great Britain and France in North America and India ended in favor of the former. See CANADA; FREDERICK II; MARIA THERESA; PITT, WILLIAM.

Bibliography.-Arneth, Maria Theresa und der siebenjaehrige Krieg (Vienna 1876); Bernhardi, Friedrich der Grosse als Feldherr (Berlin 1881); Carlyle, T., 'Life of Frederick the Great' (New York 1899); Corbett, J. S., 'England in the Seven Years' War' (2 vols., London 1907); Frederick II, 'Histoire de la Guerre de sept ans' (1794-1801); Lloyd, 'History of the Seven Years' War' (1781-90); Longman, F. W., 'Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War' (London 1888); Masslowski, Die Russische Armee im siebenjaehrigen Kriège (Berlin 1893); Schäfer, 'Geschichte des siebenjährigen Krieges' (Berlin 1867-74); Von Ranke, 'Der Ursprung des siebenjährigen Krièges (Leipzig 1871); Vast, Guerre de sept ans with bibliography in Lavisse and Rambaud; Histoire générale du IVme siècle à nos jours (Vol. VII; Paris 1893-1900).

SEVENTEEN-YEAR LOCUST, or CICADA. This insect (Cicada septendecim) is black, marked with bright orange and a white spot on the head just behind the eyes. There are four glassy wings and the eyes are red. The length is about one and one-half inches. When the insect emerges from the ground after its 17 years' burial it ascends a tree trunk or other convenient object and works its body rapidly backward and forward, breaking the pupal skin, from which the winged imago emerges. The cicadas pair at once. They then congregate on the branches of the trees in sufficient numbers to bend and at times break them by their weight. The woods and orchards resound with the din of the drums from morning to night.

The females lay the eggs in the twigs and small branches of trees. They repeatedly thrust the ovipositor obliquely into the bark and wood in the direction of the fibres, at the same time putting in motion the lateral saws which detach little splinters of wood and make a fibrous lid over the whole. In each fissure made by the piercer the female deposits from 10 to 20 eggs in pairs. It takes her a quarter of an hour to prepare one nest and fill it with eggs, and she usually makes between 15 to 20 fissures in one limb. She lays between 400 and 500 eggs and then soon dies. Six weeks later the eggs

hatch. The young when it bursts the shell is grublike in form and has six legs, the first pair of which are large and claw-like, and the mouth is provided with a suctorial proboscis. After being hatched the young deliberately loosen their hold on the limb and fall to the earth. They instantly dig their way into the ground where they seek out the tender roots of plants. These they pierce with their beaks and draw out the vegetable juices which constitute their sole nourishment. They remain in the larval state for about 17 years, when they are full grown, pass into the pupal state, in which they remain but a few days, seek the surface of the ground and transform.

When a brood of cicadas is expected, no young trees should be set out for a year or two prior. The older trees are frequently able_by their strength to live through the attacks. Extremely valuable shrubs and trees may be saved by being completely covered with mosquito netting, thus preventing the deposit of eggs.

For a record of broods, see CICADA; and for the musical apparatus, etc., see ORTHOPIERA. SEVENTH DAY ADVENTISTS. ADVENTISTS.

See

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. This was a century of bitter political dissension, religious wars and ever-recurring turmoil of many kinds throughout Europe. The Huguenot wars in France during the first 30 years, the Thirty Years' War in Germany (1618-48) and the frequent wars of France with nearly all her neighbors under Louis XIV in the latter half of the century make it forever notorious. England put King Charles I to death (1649), was ruled by Cromwell for some 10 years, restored the Stuarts (1660) only to banish them in the person of James II (1688) when his Catholicity offended the realm, so as to place his Protestant daughter Mary, with her consort, Prince William of Orange, on the throne. This furnished the occasion for the drawing up of the Declaration of Rights, which the king and queen as all subsequent English sovereigns had to guarantee before their coronation, so that the Revolution of 1688 well deserves its title of "glorious" as a landmark in the progress of constitutional government.

The romantic career of Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) closed tragically. As a favorite of Queen Elizabeth he went on expeditions to America, tried to found a colony in Virginia, named by him after the "virgin queen," and was one of the gentlemen adventurers of the later 16th century, well known by everyone. He lost favor in King James' time, was accused of taking part in a conspiracy against the king, for which he was imprisoned in the Tower for some 13 years, and finally, having failed in an expedition to America, was beheaded. During his long confinement he relieved the tedium of prison life by writing a 'History of the World,' of no value as history, but an interesting example of the prose and mode of thought of the time. Raleigh will always be remembered for having introduced the potato into Ireland and the use of tobacco into England. The use of tobacco was condemned by Church and State and bitterly denounced by King James I, who wrote a book against it, but spread all the faster, apparently, for that. It was supposed to be the secret of the health and vigor of the

Indians, the significance of their life in the open and their simple food being missed. Tobacco was destined to become the most popular of narcotics, almost universal in use. Only the American Indians used it in the 15th century; now it is used everywhere throughout civilization. This century saw also the introduction of coffee into Europe as well as of tea. Coffee houses became popular social centres, and tea was served in them in the latter half of the century with and without alcoholic additions. The two exotic plants and their products were destined to revolutionize social usages in many ways, and their use has gone on increasing in spite of medical and other warnings with regard to possible dangers.

The Jacobean period, named after James I (king 1603-28), who had been James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary Queen of Scots, contains Shakespeare's mature work- 'Hamlet, the Roman plays, 'Lear,' 'Macbeth' and 'Henry VIII-a number of the plays of Ben Jonson, besides all of the dramatic product of Beaumont and Fletcher and Massinger, with most of the work of Shirley and Davenant. The latter part of the century had Dryden, Congreve and Wycherley. The Jacobean was followed by a period of Puritan literature, the supreme products of which are Milton's 'Paradise Lost,' the greatest epic in English, and Bunyan's 'Pilgrim's Progress,' the greatest English allegory, both with a high place in world literature. Milton succeeded admirably in his revival of the classic drama in Samson Agonistes,' but it is his shorter poems that reveal his greatness as a poet. Bunyan, a wandering tinker, confined to Bedford jail for 12 years, found the time to write his allegory, a marvelous bit of English prose and of Puritanic philosophy, He was so full of the Scriptures that his book breathes their very style. The subsequent reaction against Puritanism gave rise to the licentious Restoration drama. Even Dryden allowed his work to be tinged by the license of the time. His poetry is the greatest of the period and perhaps the greatest for two centuries after.

After Shakespeare's plays, the most important landmark in English literature of this century is the King James version of the Bible (1611). Done by a group of scholars into the virile English of the time, under the influence of the still living Elizabethan tradition, this translation fixed the language, prose and verse, for all the after time. It has had the strongest influence on nearly all the English writers, though more particularly writers of prose, and still remains what may be called the best English.

The man of the period most famous in the aftertime was Lord Bacon (Baron Verulam), Lord Chancellor of England. His 'Novum Organum with its discussion of the inductive method brought him fame. It is recognized now that he was only one of a group of men about this time, many before him, who emphasized the value of induction in science. Some of the greatest discoveries of our modern sciences were made by the inductive method before and after Bacon's time by men who knew nothing of Bacon. Telesio stated fully the inductive method 100 years before Bacon; his great namesake Roger Bacon, as well as Albertus Magnus, Nicholas of Cusa and many

others employed it before the Middle Ages closed, and Copernicus Versalius, Eustachius, Leonardo da Vinci, Cæsalpinus and many others had used the method of observation and experiment in the 16th century, and Gilbert and Galileo, Bacon's contemporaries, used it very successfully but quite independent of his influence. Bacon's modern fame is founded on the claim that he was the author of Shakespeare's plays. This "Baconian theory," as it is called, owes its vogue to one Delia Bacon, who claimed to be a descendant of the Lord Chancellor, and who first made the claim for him some 250 years after Shakespeare's death. The year after she was adjudged insane and never afterward recovered her sanity. The theory was not an invention of hers, as the curious delusions of the insane seldom are, but the chance suggestion of a writer on travel in Mexico who threw out the hint that it must have been a learned man who wrote Shakespeare's plays.

The literature of the century opened with Shakespeare's 'Hamlet,' "more written about than any man that ever lived» (Furness) and 'Don Quixote, "incomparably the best novel ever written" (Macaulay). The Spanish promise was well fulfilled. Cervantes' short stories have been declared the best of their kind. Spain excelled, however, in dramatic literature. Calderon has been compared to Shakespeare (Russel Lowell). Lope de Vega (1560-1635), "a prodigy of nature," wrote more plays than any other man that ever lived. His plots at least deeply influenced writers in other countries. Alarcon, an American by birth, and Tirso de Molina, the creator of the world-type Don Juan, whose biography has been re-created in our day, for he wrote under a pseudonym, are other Spanish dramatic writers with a place in world literature. In history (Mariana), in philosophy (Suarez), in ascetics (Rodriguez) as well as in theology (Molina) and grammar (Alvarez), the Spanish writers of this period, are famous and their works have been republished many times.

The century contains the "Golden Period" of French literature. Richelieu founded the French Academy (1635), and this gave a great impetus to the cultivation of the French language. Louis XIV was most liberal in his patronage of Frenchmen of letters, and his was a real Augustan Age, with a great many of the literary men of the time ready to sing the praises of the king because of his generous patronage. The political glory of Louis' reign and the many French victories in war stimulated the French imagination with magnificent literary results. France's crowning prestige in this period made the French literature of very far-reaching influence. Latin gradually ceased at this time to be used as a common language in diplomatic and scientific circles. French replaced it, so that everyone in Europe who had any pretensions to education knew French besides his mother tongue, and was interested in French literature. It is not surprising, then, that under the stimulus of a world audience every mode of French literature developed in wonderful fashion. Corneille, Racine and Moliêre are the great dramatic poets, worthy of a place beside the dramatists of any other time or country; Descartes and Pascal, the philosophical writers who have deeply in

fluenced all the succeeding generations; Boileau and La Fontaine the poets, still widely read after nearly three centuries; Bossuet, Bourdaloue and Flechier the orators, among the greatest of history; La Rochefoucauld and La Bruyère as moralists are still living forces, and La Rochefoucauld is almost more quoted than any author since his time. Fenelon has a place by himself and it is very high. The period also saw the development of a school of romance, mainly of women writers. Madame de Sévigné wrote French prose while coteries of immortal French literary ladies made literature a fashion, though little of their work has survived. Mademoiselle de Scudéry's writings had an immense vogue and probably suggested the comic romance of Scarron and some other romantic developments. Madame de la Fayette wrote in the 'Princess of Treves, a story that anticipates our modern fiction in

many ways.

Three philosophers who have notably affected human thinking ever since wrote at that time. Descartes (1596-1650), who probably has influenced modern philosophy more deeply than any other, was distinguished as a mathematician, but put that aside to spend 20 years in retirement in Holland (near Leyden) elaborating his system of philosophy. He began by doubting everything, even his own existence, but his "I think, therefore, I am," became for him the foundation of certitude. Spinoza (1632-77) was the greatest modern expounder of Pantheism. He was descended from Portuguese Jews and made his living as a lensgrinder in Amsterdam. His metaphysical speculations were founded on Descartes, who had gone into philosophic retirement not far from where Spinoza also retired when he gave up his occupation to write out his Pantheistic theories. Pascal (1623-62) was like Descartes, first a mathematician and then a philosopher. He is famous for his prose style. He died before his magnum opus, an apology for Christianity, was completed. All that we have of it is the 'Pensées, thoughts on great subjects.

The century proved a great period in the history of mathematics. Kepler succeeded Tycho Brahe_as mathematician-astronomer to the Emperor Rudolph (1602). In working out Tycho's observations he deduced the great laws that bear his name. Galileo's discoveries opened further occasions for mathematics. Cassini's tables of the motions of Jupiter's moons led to his invitation to the observatory in Paris, and the Cassinis continued for generations as successful workers in astronomy and mathematics. Descartes and Pascal graduated from mathematics into philosophy and carried the modes of their previous discipline into the new sphere of thought. The Bernoullis, Jacques and Jean were followed in succeeding generations, like the Cassinis, by great mathematicians. Jacques Bernoulli (1654-1705) solved the isoperimetrical problem and discovered the properties of the logarithmic spiral. The two greatest mathematicians of the century are Leibnitz (1646-1716) and Newton (16421727). Leibnitz was the inventor of the differential and integral calculus (independently discovered by Newton), and was also a writer of influence on philosophy. Newton's astro

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nomical mathematics, depending on the determination of the length of a degree on the earth's surface by Picard in Paris (1671), made him famous. His Principia Mathematica' was presented to the Royal Society (1686) and published the following year.

The name of the period around which everrecurring controversy has centred is that of Galileo (1564-1642) the physicist-astronomer. He invented the thermometer, discovered the isochronism of the pendulum and the hydrostatic balance and the barometer. His great invention was the telescope, with which he discovered Jupiter's moons (1610). For teaching in opposition to all the mathematicians and astronomers of his time that the Copernican theory is the only tenable doctrine of the heavens though his reasons for it have all since been contradicted, and Copernicanism is now held on entirely other grounds. Galileo was compelled by the Inquisition to abjure his Copernican teaching in 1633. He was disciplined but not imprisoned, and prominent ecclesiastics continued to be his friends. "His long life considered as a whole was one of the most serene and enviable in the history of science" (Bertrand, Perpetual Secretary Paris Academy of Science). His trial at Rome has been taken as the symbol of Church opposition to science, but as it is practically the only case in some six centuries, Cardinal Newman emphasized the fact that it had just the opposite significance, and was the exception which proved the rule of Church relations to science as favorable. Galileo himself continued to be a faithful and even devout Catholic.

The century stands out in the history of art, with two of the greatest artists of all time. Rembrandt (1607-69) and Velasquez (1599– 1660). Admiration for the work of these men has grown ever since. A series of great painters, besides Rembrandt in the Netherlands and the contemporaries of Velasquez in Spain, are noteworthy. Rubens (1577-1640) did his best work in this century, and his pupil Van Dyke (1599-1641) belongs entirely to it. His greatest work was done in the fourth decade of the century in England. Ruysdael, Hobbema, Paul Potter, Vermeer, Teniers and others maintained the primacy of the Netherlands in painting during this century. Besides Velasquez there were in Spain many who reached distinction and that distinction has grown in recent years. The best known among them are Zurbaran, Murillo and Ribera. In France, though the French were under the influence of the Italians, such names as Nicolas Poussin and Claude (Lorrain) are forever famous.

Sweden came to occupy a very important place in European politics during this century. King Gustav Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus) intervened in the Thirty Years' War to prevent the further aggrandizement of the Hapsburgs. The Swedes looked upon the Baltic as a Swedish lake and their supremacy seemed imperiled. After the fall of Magdeburg, 1631, when that city was stormed by Tilly and given up to pillage, the Protestant princes of Germany, alarmed, united with the Swedish king. Tilly was defeated at Breitenfeld (Leipzig) 1631, and again the following year, when he was fatally wounded. The emperor had to turn to Wallenstein, who had been in disgrace. Under him a