immediately transmitted to the guild or communal authorities. Whether verbal or in writing, the guild or communal authorities must enter the contract in a register to be kept for that purpose.

The contract must contain (1) the name and age of the employer, the industry which he carries on, and the address of his place of business; (2) the name, age, and residence of the apprentice; (3) the name, residence, and occupation of his parent, guardian, or other legal representative; (4) the date and duration of the apprenticeship contract; (5) a clause stating that in addition to the other legal obligations of the parties the employer binds himself to instruct the apprentice in his trade, or to have it done by a competent representative, and the apprentice will be required to apply himself diligently to his trade; (6) clauses showing the conditions of the contract as regards apprenticeship fees or wages, board, lodging, and clothing, the duration of the apprenticeship term, and the guild fee for the certificate of indenture and release.

The more important features of the contract must be entered by the communal authorities in the labor book of the apprentice.

Except in the cases otherwise specially provided by law, the term of apprenticeship must not be less than 2 nor more than 4 years in nonfactory trades, and not more than 3 years in factory trades. When an apprentice has served a portion of his term with one employer and is regularly transferred to the service of another, the time so served must be included in the entire term.

The first 4 weeks of the apprenticeship term must be considered as a period of probation, during which the contract can be terminated by either party. This period may be extended, but must not be longer than 3 months.

The employer must interest himself in the industrial education of the apprentice, and must not deprive him of the time and opportunity necessary for this purpose by using him for other purposes. He or his representative must look after the morals and deportment of minor apprentices, both in and outside the workshop. He must require of the apprentice diligence, good manners, and the fulfillment of his religious duties. He must not ill treat the apprentice, and must protect him from ill treatment on the part of fellow-workmen or members of his household. He must see that the apprentice is not required to perform work, such as transporting burdens, etc., which is beyond his physical strength.

The employer or his representative is further required to allow apprentices, who have not yet been absolved from the obligation to attend an industrial finishing school, or an institution of equal merit, the necessary time for attendance at the existing general industrial finishing schools (gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen), as well as the technical finishing schools (fachliche Fortbildungsschulen), and also to see that they do attend such schools.

If an apprentice becomes sick or runs away, or any other important event occurs, the employer must immediately notify the guild to which he belongs, and the parent, guardian, or other representative of the apprentice.

The apprentice, on his part, must be obedient and faithful toward his employer, must conduct himself in an orderly manner, and must maintain secrecy regarding the work of his employer. He must fulfill his school obligations as above described. A minor apprentice may be subjected to paternal punishment by the employer under whose charge he lives. If an apprentice persistently neglects, through his own fault, to perform his school duties, the industrial authorities may, upon the report of the school authorities, extend the regular term of apprenticeship beyond the time specified in the contract. Such extension may also be made by the industrial authorities, if the guild reports that the apprentice has failed to pass the apprenticeship examination prescribed by the constitution of the guild. In no case, however, can the extension be for more than 1 year.

The apprenticeship contract may be dissolved by the apprentice, upon giving 14 days' notice, if he shows, by means of a declaratiou through his legal representative, that he intends to change his occupation and take up an entirely different trade; or that on account of changes in the circumstances of his parents his services are needed by them for their support or for the management of their business or trade. The reasons for the severance of the apprenticeship contract must be recorded in the labor book of the apprentice.

Within a year after the dissolution of the apprenticeship the apprentice may not be employed in the same trade or in an analogous factory industry, without the consent of his former employer. If this consent is refused, the apprentice may appeal, through his legal representative, to the legally constituted tribunal for the settlement of disputes regarding wage conditions, which authority may, when it deems it proper, give the necessary consent.

In addition to the cases mentioned above the apprentice may, upon giving 14 days' notice, sever his contract, if he shows beyond a doubt before the proper arbitration tribunal that his employer has been guilty of continuous harsh and unjust treatment of him, even though this conduct may not be such ill treatment as would entitle him immediately to sever the contract. If the contract is severed on this account, the provision regarding the obtaining of the employer's consent before the apprentice may engage in the same trade does not apply.

The apprenticeship contract may be immediately broken without giving notice by the employer (1) if it is shown beyond a doubt that the apprentice is incapable of performing his duties; (2) if the apprentice is guilty of any gross offense, such as theft, improper or immoral conduct, the disclosing of business secrets, or any punishable conduct rendering him unworthy of his employer's confidence, gross neglect of duty, carrying on another trade without the consent of his employer, etc.; (3) if the apprentice is afflicted with a loathsome disease or is prevented by sickness from performing his duties for over three months, and (4) if the apprentice is imprisoned for more than one month.

In the same way the apprentice may sever the contract without giving notice (1) if he can not continue in the work without injury to his health; (2) if his employer grossly neglects his duties toward him, attempts to lead him into immoral or unlawful conduct, abuses his right to inflict paternal punishment, or fails to protect him from ill treatment on the part of his fellow-workmen or members of his family; (3) if his employer is imprisoned for more than 1 month, or even for a shorter period, if no provision is made for his support; (4) if his employer, by way of punishment, has his right to carry on his trade temporarily suspended, and (5) if his employer removes with his business into another commune. In the last case the dissolution of the contract must take place within 2 months from the time of the removal.

The apprenticeship contract is ipso facto terminated by the death of the apprentice or the employer, by the retirement of the latter from the business followed, or by the inability of either of the parties to fulfill his contractual obligations. If the apprentice is connected with a guild, and his apprenticeship was terminated, through no fault of his own, before the expiration of the term it is the duty of the guild to see that the apprentice is employed by another employer. It is also the duty of the guild to act in the place of the legal representative of the apprentice as regards the making of a declaration_setting forth the grounds for breaking the contract when such declaration can not be obtained in time from such representative.

Upon the termination of the apprenticeship the employer must furnish the apprentice with a certificate (Zeugniss), showing the trade in which the apprenticeship was served, the conduct of the apprentice, and the technical education that he has received. In case the apprenticeship is regularly completed, and the employer is a member of a guild, this body must prepare a formal apprenticeship certificate (Lehrbrief). In both cases the material contents of the certificates must be entered in the labor book of the apprentice and be attested by the local police authorities. (United States Labor Bulletin, Vol. V., pp. 572–575.)

Ontario.-Revised Statutes, 1897, chapter 161, provides with much elaboration for a system of apprenticeship whereby males over 14 and females over 12 may be bound out to the age of 18. The provisions are not essentially different from the English law on the same subject. In Belgium there are no apprentice laws.

In New Zealand it is declared that the apprenticeship laws of Great Britain apply generally, but if the apprentice absent himself from his master's service before his term has expired he may be arrested and, upon a summary hearing before two justices of the peace, committed to jail.

In New South Wales children of 14 may be bound as apprentices for a term not longer than 7 years by the parents or guardians, managers of an orphan asylum, etc. Government services carrying on industrial work and companies may receive apprentices as well as individuals. Before an apprentice is bound he may be received on probation on such terms as may be agreed upon for a period of 3 months. No

apprentice except in farming or domestic occupations is bound to serve his master for more than 48 hours in any one week. For misconduct, absence, etc., apprentices may be committed to jail, and masters are forbidden under penalty of fine to discharge an apprentice before the term ends.

Western Australia. The English laws of apprenticeship enforced January 1, 1873, are declared to apply to the act of 1872. No apprenticeship indenture can be annulled except upon proof of ill treatment or incompetency by the master, or incorrigible misconduct on the part of the apprentice.

The term "trade union" means any combination, whether temporary or permanent, for regulating the relations between workmen and masters, or between workmen and workmen, or between masters and masters, or for imposing restrictive conditions on the conduct of any trade or business, whether such combination would or would not, if the principal act had not been passed, have been deemed to have been an unlawful combination by reason of some one or more of its purposes being in restraint of trade.

(1) The purposes of any trade union shall not by reason merely that they are in restraint of trade be deemed to be unlawful, so as to render any member of such trade union liable to criminal prosecution for conspiracy and otherwise. (2) The purposes of any trade union shall not, by reason merely that they are in restraint of trade, be unlawful so as to render void or voidable any agreement or trust.

Nothing in this act shall enable any court to entertain any legal proceeding instituted with the object of directly enforcing or recovering damages for the breach of any of the following agreements, namely:

1. Any agreement between members of a trade union as such, concerning the conditions on which any members for the time being of such trade union shall or shall not sell their goods, transact business, employ or be employed.

2. Ary agreement for the payment by any person of any subscription or penalty to a trade union.

3. Any agreement for the application of the funds of a trade union (a) to provide benefits to members; or (b) to furnish contributions to any employer or workman, not a member of such trade union, in consideration of such employer or workman acting in conformity with the rules or resolutions of such trade union; or (c) to discharge any fine imposed upon any person by sentence of a court of justice; or, 4. Any agreement made between one trade union and another; or, 5. Any bond to secure the performance of any of the above-mentioned agreements.

But nothing in this section shall be deemed to constitute any of the above-mentioned agreements unlawful.

Provision is further made for registration of trade unions in the offices of the registrar of friendly societies. The registration is not obligatory, but any seven or more members of a trade union may

134 and 35 Vict., c. 31; 39 and 40 Vict., c. 32.

register by filing an application, with printed copies of the rules, titles, and names of officers, statement of receipts, funds, and expenditures, which must be renewed annually. The rules must set forth the name of the trade union, place of meeting for business of the trade union; the whole of the object for which it is established, the purposes for which the funds shall be applicable, the conditions under which any member may become entitled to benefits, the fines which may be imposed on members; the matter of making, altering, amending, and rescinding rules; the provision for the appointment and removal of a general committee, trustees, treasurer, and other officers; a provision for the investigation of the funds and for an annual or periodical audit of accounts; the inspection of the books and names of members of the trade union by every person having an interest in its funds. A copy of the rules must be delivered by the trade union to every person on demand on payment of a sum not exceeding 1 shilling. Trade unions. so registered must have a registered office. Annual reports are made by the registrars of such unions to Parliament.

By an act of 1876 certificates of registration may be withdrawn at the request of the union, or on proof of fraud or mistake, or that the union has violated any of the provisions of the trade-union acts, or has ceased to exist. Such withdrawal cancels its privileges as a registered trade union, without prejudice to any liability incurred by it while registered. Two or more trade unions may amalgamate with the consent of two-thirds of the members of each, with or without any division of the funds, but not to the prejudice of any right of a creditor. Registered trade unions may purchase or lease land not exceeding 1 acre, and sell or mortgage the same, and all real and personal estate belonging to it shall be vested in the trustees of the central union, if the rules so provide. The trustees may sue and be sued concerning such property, and are not liable except for moneys actually received. They may require accounts from the treasurer.

A person under the age of 21, but above the age of 16, may be a member of the trade union, unless rules provide to the contrary. The funds of a trade union are exempt (56 Vict., c. 2) from the income tax, so far as they are devoted to the provision of provident benefits, but this exemption is limited to registered trade unions which give insurance to each member not in excess of £200. "Provident benefits" include any payment paid to a member during any sickness or incapacity, or while out of work, or to an aged member, or to a member who has met with an accident, or lost his tools by fire or theft, or to a payment in discharge of funeral expenses, or to the children of a deceased member.

FRANCE.

The penal code of 1810, articles 291 and 292 of the law of April 10, 1834, prohibits the formation of organizations of more than 20 members, unless the consent of the Government has been obtained. The Government may arbitrarily grant or refuse such application, impose conditions, or revoke permission. The suppression of the guilds in 1791, says Professor Willoughby, was almost immediately followed by the development of voluntary organizations of employers and workingmen. The Constituent Assembly, which had in the same year decreed liberty to work, saw only danger in these organizations. It therefore passed the law of June 14-17, 1791, which absolutely prohibited persons, whether employers or employees, connected with the