begin to assume this great distance when cooled down below 390. Solids are precisely in the same situation with liquids, as far as their expansion by heat is concerned. Their particles attract each other, with more or less force according to the solid. This attraction opposes the expanding power of heat. Hence every solid must have a degree of expansion peculiar to itself; and the rate of expansion in solids as well as liquids must increase as their temperatures augment. As heat increases the bulk of all bodies, it is obvious, that change of temperature is constantly producing changes in their density, or specific gravity, as may be easily demonstrated in fluids where there is freedom of motion among the particles. If we apply heat to the bottom of a vessel of water, the heated part expands, and rises, while a cold or denser stratum occupies its place. In air similar currents are continually produced, and the vibratory motion observed over chimney pots, and slated roofs, which have been heated by the sun, depends upon this circumstance, the warm air rises and its refracting power being less than that of the circumambient colder air, the currents are rendered visible, by the distortion of objects viewed through them. There is a very ready illustration of the expansion of metals by heat; take a small rod of iron cut of exact length to fit within certain marks, and provide a metal plate with a hole in it, of the exact size of the diameter of the iron rod, if the rod be now heated, it will be found to have increased both in length and diameter. Some of the metals have the property of expanding at the moment of their becoming solid; cast iron, bismuth, and antimony, are of this class. Hence the precision with which cast iron takes the impression of the mould. It was our intention to have concluded this paper with a notice of the thermometer, but want of space precludes it until the next number. Erratum. In the last paper, page 230, near the top, read, "Common air is an example of a body in the gaseous state; water of a body in a liquid state, and iron of a body in a solid state.' LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS. THE rapid multiplication of societies intended to promote the intellectual improvement of various classes of the community is a distinguished characteristic of the present time. Twelve months ago, Luton was destitute of such an organ of the best kind of civilization, and it now possesses one. Its example has since been imitated by St. Albans, and Bedford, and in these three important towns, Literary and Scientific Institutions exist, all conferring benefits in their immediate localities. As a method of educating the adult portion of the people, such societies are unrivalled, and it is very desirable that their real character and claims should be pressed on the public regard. The grand and principal result to be anticipated from the operations of these societies, is the elevation of the national understanding, an object which every philanthropist, and every moralist should have constantly in view. Until a more healthy state of the intellectual faculties is produced, we cannot be sanguine as to the effects of religious efforts on the depraved and corrupt. The rejection of morality altogether, will be found to arise from a debased state of mind; and the imperfect exhibition of christian graces by those who profess to live under the influence of revealed truth, is often the consequence of erroneous opinions. Perverted views of truth are entertained, in consequence of the thinking faculties being scarcely exercised. Dogmas pernicious in themselves, are received by multitudes, and acted upon, simply because they are not accustomed to reaWithout attributing much power to a cultivated understanding in the production of virtuous sentiments, it must be evident that there is a better chance of making men good, when they have been accustomed to think;—if this be not the case, the monstrous position is true, that morality is not founded in reason. son. LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTION. 277 The mistake which is committed by many benevolent persons, when they expect to develope some particular virtue, without raising the whole intelligent being, is thus ably exposed in the following passage in the Athenæum. 66 "We would contend-as we have more than once contended, and shall continue to contend on every available occasion-that the peddling morality which deals in specialities, and disports itself in monographs of virtue and vice, is altogether below the occasion; that its teachings are adapted only to infants, and to those children of a larger growth, who cannot, or will not think, and upon whom all lessons are alike thrown away. Temperance tracts, prudence tracts, and honesty tracts are the petty means of petty intellects, and partake more of cunning than of wisdom, or of a true knowledge of human nature. Philanthropists of the microscopic class, who delight in such compositions, to use the words of Dr. Channing, "expect a people to think and act wisely in special cases, although generally wanting in intelligence, sound judgment, and the capacity of understanding and applying the principles of reason. But this partial improvement is a vain hope. To do men permanent good, we must act on their whole nature, and especially must aid, and foster, and guide their highest faculties, at the first period of developement.Benevolence is short-sighted indeed, and must blame itself for failure, if it do not see in education the chief interest of the human race." "These are the words of perhaps the soundest philosopher of the day-the Franklin and the Socrates of the pulpit,but better still, they are the words of truth itself. It is only by raising the entire character of the people, by enlarging their views, and elevating the general standard of national morality, that a community can be cured of its vices and improved in happiness: all the rest is sheer quackery,—often false and erroneous; and even when most A a 278 LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTION. correct, deficient in all the dignity and manliness of real virtue." In a Besides this principal object attained by the efficient working of Literary and Scientific Institutions, there are several minor advantages, which are in themselves exceedingly valuable. Latent talent is called forth. town like Luton, for example, several interesting lectures have been delivered by parties, who a few months back, would have thought themselves quite incompetent to the task they have so satisfactorily performed. It is by such small beginings that the greater exercises of the understanding are brought into play, and every society thus eliciting the powers of its members, may confer incalculable benefits on the community. Another collateral advantage is the fostering a friendly spirit among persons of different sects and parties. This is unavoidable, for literary and scientific pursuits have in themselves a tendency quite opposed to bigotry and exclusiveness. A heathen writer affirms that the study of liberal arts softens men's manners, and we all know that there is a ferocity in party spirit which demands such an ameliorating influence. It is much to be wished, therefore, that such societies should be carefully watched, and not allowed by negligence to sink into decay. Especially should efforts be employed to stimulate the working classes to avail themselves of the opportunities thus presented to them. In the Luton Institution this object appears partially to have failed, but strenuous attempts will doubtless be made to bring this department into active energy. The report of this Institution, lately read to the members, thus feelingly presses its claims upon the public notice and support. "Your committee cannot omit this opportunity of congratulating you on the formation and progress of this Institution; an Institution having for its object the gratification and cultivation of the noblest faculties with which it has pleased the Almighty to bless his creatures; and calculated as it is to restrain, and to eradicate from the human breast, those grosser and more sensual pleasures which in all ages have blackened and disfigured it. Your committee therefore confidently rely on the strenuous exertions of every member of this Institution, not only in furthering its declared design, but also in using his personal influence with his neighbours, in endeavouring to persuade them to join in our laudable purpose." LIGHT AND SHADE. BY JOSEPH PAYNE, ESQ. Our life is not all sunshine-there are days |