again from 1875-80. He was prominent in public matters for many years, being Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs, 1863-70 and again, 1875-78. He completed Geijer's History of Sweden' (7 vols., Stockholm 1855-85).

CARLSRUHE, kärls'roo-ů, or KARLSRUHE ("Charles Rest"), Germany, the capital of the grand duchy of Baden, 39 miles north-northwest of Stuttgart. It was laid out in 1715, and is one of the most regularly built towns in Europe. The castle of the Grand Duke stands in the centre of the city, and from this point a number of streets radiate fan fashion, at regular distances from each other. Other streets intersect these in parallel circles. The roads leading to the city correspond to this regular disposition, which, as is apt to be the case in strictly regular cities, often leaves upon the traveler the impression of monotony rather than that of agreeable order. The city is ornamented with several beautiful public buildings, including the palace, in front of which is a bronze statue of the founder of the city, the Margrave Charles William, the Parliament house, town-hall, etc. The court library contains 150,000 volumes; there are also here several valuable museums and cabinets, a botanic garden, several institutions for the promotion of literature and the fine arts. The city has a largely developing trade in engines, carriage works, furniture, paper and plated goods. Pop. (1911) 134,313.

CARLSTAD, kärl-stät, Sweden, town and the capital of the län of Vermland, on an island in Lake Wener formed by the two mouths of the Klar, and connected with the mainland by a bridge across either stream. It is beautifully situated, regularly built, is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral, gymnasium, townhouse, etc., and some trade in copper, timber, iron, machinery, tobacco, matches and grain, and also exports wooden ware and iron. The city was founded in 1584 and rebuilt after the fire of 1865. A conference between Sweden and Norway was held here in 1905 to decide on the discontinuance of the union between these countries. Pop. 17,000.

CARLSTADT, Andreas Rudolf Bodenstein, German theologian: b. Carlstadt, Franconia, 1480; d. Basel, Switzerland, 25 Dec. 1541. He is celebrated in the history of the Reformation for his fanaticism as well as his misfortunes. He studied at Erfurt (1500-03), Cologne (1503) and Wittenberg (1510), where he was finally appointed professor of theology in 1513. In 1515 he went to Rome to study law and took the degree of LL.D. His learning enabled him to render great support to Luther in his first steps for the introduction of a reformation. In 1520 he was included in the bull which condemned Luther; and his spirited appeal from the Pope to a general council, of which he gave the first example, as well as his opinion openly expressed, in favor of the marriage of the priesthood, was among the many proofs which he gave of his zeal for the Reformation. While Luther was at Wartburg Carlstadt's zeal urged him to acts of violence. He even instigated the people and students to the destruction of the altars and the images of the saints, greatly to the displeasure of Luther, who lost the friendship of Carlstadt by his opposition to his excesses. He publicly declared himself the

opponent of Luther, and the Elector Frederick banished him from the country in September 1524. Carlstadt then commenced the controversy respecting the sacrament, denying, in opposition to Luther, the bodily presence of Christ in the sacramental elements, and recognizing in the rite a token of remembrance simply. This controversy was carried on with the bitterest animosity; and Zwinglius having declared himself in favor of Carlstadt's doctrine, a dispute ensued between the Swiss and Wittenberg theologians which ended in the separation of the Calvinists and Lutherans. Carlstadt in the meantime being suspected, not without reason, of having taken part in the revolt of the peasants in Franconia, was obliged to wander through Germany, and being ultimately reduced to extreme distress, sought relief of Luther who procured him an asylum at Kemberg, on condition that he should refrain from the expression of his opinions. Here he lived nearly three years. His restless mind, however, soon led him to break his promise, by the publication of some writings in 1528; and he even went so far as to plot against Luther's person. To escape from the consequences of his conduct he repaired to Switzerland at the end of the same year, where he was appointed vicar of Altstadt, in the valley of the Rhine; in 1530, deacon at Zürich; and in 1534, vicar and professor of theology at Basel. Consult, for his biography, Jäger, J. C. (Stuttgart 1856) and Lindsay, 'History of the Reformation (Vol. I, New York 1906). Many of his letters are in Olearius, 'Serinium Antiquarium' (Halle 1698).

CARLSTADT, Austria, a town in Croatia, 34 miles southwest of Agram, agreeably situated in a perfectly level and richly cultivated plain_near the junction of the Kulpa, Korana and Dobra, which are here navigable. It consists of the town proper and the citadel, together with the suburb of Dubovacz. It is the seat of a Greek bishopric, is tolerably well built and has an important trade. It also has a higher gymnasium and military school and has a distillery and a turbine rolling mill. Pop. 16,000.

CARLSTADT, N. J., borough of Bergen County, 10 miles north of Jersey City, on the Erie Railroad. It has brass, onyx and marble works, silk mills, cotton cloth mills, sable cloth works and air valve manufactories. It is governed by a mayor and council, the former being chosen for a period of two years. Pop. 3,807.

CARLYLE, kär-lil', Alexander, Scottish clergyman: b. Prestonpans, 26 Jan. 1722; d. Inveresk, 28 Aug. 1805. He was educated at the universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, and afterward studied at the University of Leyden. Licensed as a preacher in 1747 he became minister of the parish of Inveresk, in Midlothian, where he continued to the end of his life. He was one of the leaders of the Moderate party in the Scottish Church, the party which, during the latter half of the 18th century, ruled with such predominating sway, and included the names of Robertson, Blair and Home among its members. As an eloquent debater and skilful ecclesiastical leader in the General Assembly he had no rival. He was of such striking personal appearance that he was called "Jupiter

Carlyle." He strenuously resisted all attempts to give additional influence to the popular element in ecclesiastical matters. He left behind him a well-known autobiography, which, though commenced in his 79th year, is a singularly interesting production, both from the vigor and sprightliness of its style, and the pictures which it presents of Scottish society in the 18th century, and the more or less intimate account it gives of such noted characters as Home, the dramatist, Adam Smith and David Hume. After remaining long in manuscript it was published in 1860, under the editorship of John Hill Burton.

CARLYLE, Jane Baillie Welsh, Scottish letter writer: b. Haddington, Scotland, 14 July 1801; d. London, 21 April 1866. She was the daughter of John Welsh, a Haddington surgeon, and was married to Thomas Carlyle (q.v.) 17 Oct. 1826. Her letters, edited by her husband, were published in 1883. Consult Ireland, 'Life' (London 1891); and 'New Letters and Memorials' (London 1903).

CARLYLE, John Aitken, English physician, brother of Thomas Carlyle: b. Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, 7 July 1801; d. Dumfries, 15 Dec. 1879. He studied at Edinburgh where he took his degree of M.D. in 1825, and later completed his education in Germany. He practised for a short time at London, where he was unsuccessful. He attempted literature for a while, assisting his brother in translating Legendre's 'Geometry. He then received an appointment as traveling physician to Lady Clare (1831-37), and later to the duke of Buccleuch (1838-43). Retiring to a place near the Chelsea residence of his brother, he devoted himself to literary labors and in 1849 published a translation of Dante's Inferno,' a very scholarly and finished work. A very friendly relation existed between the brothers, as evinced by letters and the will of Thomas. Dr. Carlyle edited also Irving's 'History of Scottish Poetry) (1861).

CARLYLE, Joseph Dacre, English Orientalist: b. Carlisle 1759; d. Newcastle-uponTyne, 12 April 1804. He was graduated from Cambridge, became chancellor of Carlisle in 1793, professor of Arabic at Cambridge in 1795 and was subsequently appointed to the Turkish embassy. He published Specimens of Arabic Poetry (1796); Poems (1805), and a translation of an Arabic history of Egypt. His Arabic Bible was published in 1811, completed and edited by H. Ford, professor of Arabic at Oxford.

CARLYLE, Thomas, Scotch essayist, historian and miscellaneous writer: b. Ecclefechan, near Annandale, in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 4 Dec. 1795; d. London, 4 Feb. 1881. Carlyle's ancestors were said to have come to Annandale from Carlisle, England, in the time of David II, but at the author's birth the immediate family was living in very straitened circumstances at Ecclefechan, where the grandfather, Thomas, was village carpenter and his five sons masons. The second of these, James, a man of "largest natural adornment," assertive, choleric, honest and pious, with an uncommon gift of forcible expression, married as his second wife Margaret Aitken, a woman of affectionate nature and piety of mind. By her he had four sons and five daughters, of whom

the eldest was Thomas. The third son, John Carlyle (q.v.), became distinguished as the translator of Dante. Thomas, like the other children, was brought up with much affectionate care. His parents intended him for the Church and gave him all the education in their power. He early learned his letters and soon became a voracious reader. At 10 he was sent to the grammar school at Annan, where, as a moody, sensitive child, he was much bullied by the other boys, and probably suffered acutely. At the age of 13 he was ready to enter Edinburgh University, which he attended from 1809 to 1814, without, however, taking a degree. His individuality did not readily allow itself to be molded to the academic routine. Finding himself unable, because of religious doubts, to enter the ministry, he went to Annan Academy as tutor in mathematics, in 1814. Later he taught at Kirkcaldy, where he made the acquaintance of Edward Irving (q.v). one of his warmest friends. Irving's friendship was of great value to Carlyle, and his library enabled the latter to gratify his love of reading and to mitigate the distaste which he felt for teaching. In October 1818 the work became so repellent that he resigned from his school, saying that "it were better to perish than to continue school-mastering." Then he went to Edinburgh to try to earn his living.

The next three years were perhaps the most trying of his life. He was tormented to an uncommon degree by his lifelong enemy, dyspepsia, and as a result was greatly depressed in spirit. Uncertain what career to follow, trying his hand at many vocations and different studies, miserably poor, finding his only employment for a time in writing hack articles, he was "mentally and physically adrift" in the sense that is described in his "Everlasting No" of 'Sartor Resartus.' Toward the middle of 1821, however, he seems, by much resolution and energy of will, to have shaken off much of the depression, to have attained the position of the "Everlasting Yea." The men who at this time most influenced him were the Germans, particularly Goethe, the mystic Richter, and the philosopher Fichte. German literature was now his most absorbing study, and later this study bore fruit in his Life of Schiller' (1823-24), his translation of Goethe's 'Wilhelm Meister (1824) and in several essays. These books mark his formal entrance into literature. Up to the time of their publication Carlyle's published writing had been a series of articles for Sir David Brewster's 'Encyclopedia,' a translation of Legendre's 'Geometry, to which he prefixed an Essay on Proportion,' and miscellaneous hack work. The 'Life of Schiller' and the translation of Wilhelm Meister' met with favorable reviews, and the translation is usually regarded as one of the best of all renderings into English. While he was at work on these books he was (1822-24) tutor in a well-to-do family, the Bullers, from whom he received £200 a year for not disagreeable work. In spite of the kindness of his patrons, he managed, as was usual with him during life, to find much fault with his surroundings and to utter complaints with very little fairness or reserve. A trip (1824) to London and Paris broke the monotony of his existence, and gave him many new impressions and opinions in what was a critical period of his growth.

Returning to Scotland in 1825 he established himself at Hoddam Hill, a farm near the Solway, where he farmed and wrote. On 17 Oct. 1826, Carlyle, after a somewhat prolonged, vacillating and rather stormy wooing, succeeded in marrying Jane Baillie Welsh, a woman in many ways as remarkable as himself and distinguished as a descendant of John Knox. The humors and distempers of their married life have become proverbial and are to be found most fully recorded in Froude's biography. Both seem to have been extremely and unintelligently self-willed and so vain as to be. wholly lacking in reticence about their domestic life. For two years they lived at Scotsbrig near Edinburgh, where they had the advantage of the intelligent society of the capital, and where Carlyle supported himself by writing for the reviews. In the Edinburgh Review, under the editorship of his friend Jeffrey (q.v.), he published, in 1827, his well-known essay on 'Richter' and 'The State of German Literature, an article which led to the famous correspondence with Goethe. For several years the Edinburgh and other reviews were his only medium of publication. He essayed a novel but failed, and was disappointed in his attempts to secure the chair in moral philosophy at Saint Andrews and a professorship in London University.

In May 1828 the Carlyles removed to a lonely farm, Craigenputtoch, overlooking the Solway. Here he wrote his Essay on Burns,' one of his most sympathetic pieces of criticism (Edinburgh Review, 1828), several other essays of much importance, as Voltaire, Novalis and his 'Sartor Resartus,' the book for which he is perhaps most famous. Refused by several publishers, 'Sartor Resartus' first saw light in Fraser's Magazine, between December 1833 and August 1834, where it excited such a storm of protest that no separate English edition appeared till 1838. Meanwhile (1836) it first appeared in book form in America, where it was especially commended by Emerson. This most characteristic book of Carlyle purports to be a review by an English editor of a treatise by a learned German professor, Herr Teufelsdröckh, with whose life and opinions it deals. The book is written around the famous Philosophy of Clothes, designed by Swift (q.v.), and is in the main symbolical of Carlyle's creed at this time that as clothes express the taste of the wearer, so life in all its forms may be regarded as the vesture of the mind. The idea is not a very original one, but is expressed with such oddity of phrase and image that it appears as profound as forcible. The most interesting feature is the account of the moral and spiritual attire of Teufelsdröckh, who is Carlyle himself. It is the querulous, stormy tale of early suffering, lack of sympathy from fellowmen, disappointment alike in the business of the head and the affairs of the heart, despondency and despair over the great question why man is in the universe, doubt and wavering, and final acceptance of the facts of existence with the hope of solu tion through stern endeavor. The book might be called a prose epic of the inner life, and it is wholly egoistic and anthropocentric.

In 1834 the Carlyles removed to London, where they settled in Cheyne Row, Chelsea, and here were their headquarters for the re

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mainder of their lives. Soon after the change he began his 'French Revolution, which was completed in 1837 and which gave him much more reputation than he had heretofore enjoyed. During the same period he wrote the 'Diamond Necklace' and the articles on 'Mirabeau and Sir Walter Scott,' the honorarium from which was of great benefit in his impecunious state. The success of the history enabled him, in the four following years, to gain audience for four series of lectures, German Literature, the History of European Literature, Revolutions' and the more characteristic Heroes and Hero-Worship.' Published in book form in 1841, this series remains to-day one of the most widely read of Carlyle's works and is perhaps the clearest expression of his philosophy of history. "As I take it," he says, "universal history, the history of what man has accomplished in this world, is at bottom the history of the great men who have worked there." The moral animus of the book is expressed farther on in the same introduction: "We cannot look, however imperfectly, upon a great man, without gaining something by him. He is the living light-fountain which it is good and pleasant to be near." speaking of the Hero as a man of letters, he tells us the purpose of all his own writing: "The writer of a book, is he not a preacher, preaching not to this parish or that, on this day or that, but to all men in all times and places?»

Again,

The book may conveniently mark an important time in Carlyle's life. The pamphlet on 'Chartism' of 1840 had enunciated a doctrine, of a political sort, that "Might is right," -"one of the few strings," says Nichol, "on which, with all the variations of a political Paganini, he played through life." About this time, in short, his ideas of history, of morals, of politics, of his own mission, seem to have crystallized. Furthermore, his circumstances had definitively bettered. His name was well known and he was able to refuse a chair of history at Edinburgh University and later another at Saint Andrews. In 1842 the death of Mrs. Carlyle's mother threw an income of at least £200 in the hands of the Carlyles and relieved them of the fear of penury.

From this time on Carlyle's work falls mainly into two main classes: (1) the lives of great individuals and (2) pamphlets of a quasipolitical sort, powerful lashings of modern institutions. The most important of the latter, 'Past and Present,' written in seven weeks, appeared in 1843. Herein Carlyle commits a common and characteristic fallacy in comparing a charming picture of monastic England with some of the worst things of modern life, to the obvious disadvantage of the latter and, by extension and implication, to modern civilization as a whole. Nevertheless, the book makes a strong appeal to our humanity, and is perhaps the best example of Carlyle's many protests against modern barbarism. It is said to have been productive of good in factory legislation. Meanwhile he was engaged on an important work of the first class spoken of,Cromwell, which, after three years' preparation, appeared in 1845. Carlyle, with characteristic thoroughness, spent a large part of the summers of 1842 and 1843 in visiting the battlefields of the Civil War. It is significant that the "great man" was now, with Carlyle, not