murders that a company had to be raised to pursue the marauders and watch over the district, and a vigilance committee was formed, which after some abortive efforts reappeared in the following year of popular tribunals to achieve most gratifying results."1

The difficulty of collecting the heavy tax, due chiefly to its excessiveness, the protestations even from those not subjected to it, and the questions raised concerning its constitutionality 2 caused it to be repealed in 1851; but after further consideration and pressure it was restored in the following year at the reduced rate of $3 per month, which was increased to $4 a year later and long sustained.73

70 So resolved in meeting of July 3, 1850, when subscriptions began for the 25 men to be raised by Litton. Appeal was also made to the government for a detachment. A meeting of July 21st resolved to appoint a committee in each camp to issue permits to respectable foreigners, and order all others to leave; all foreigners having to deliver up their arms. The enforcement proved difficult. Avila, Doc., 225. At Don Pedro Bar, Tuolumne, an affray took place, Aug. 7, 1850, between the collector's party of 12 and the gathered Mexicans. The former fired and killed several, but received so warm a reply that they withdrew. S. F. Picayune, Aug. 12, 1850; W. Pac. News, Aug. 1, 1850; and references in preceding note.

As fully related in my Popular Tribunals, i. 496-514, etc.

72 The supreme court affirmed the constitutionality, although art. 1, sec. 17, of the state organic law implies that foreigners shall enjoy the same property rights as citizens.

73 The law of May 4, 1852, gave as a reason for the tax 'the privileges and protection' secured to the foreigner while not liable to the same duties as citizens. Loop-holes were cut off by making employers liable for the tax of employés, and by imposing it upon all foreigners in the mining region not directly engaged in other pursuits. An amendment of 1855 raised the tax to $6 for persons ineligible for citizenship (not intending to become citizens) and increased it by $2 every year; but this was annulled in 1856, and the general $4 rate affirmed. Another act of April 30, 1855, made captains liable to pay $50 for every immigrant not competent to become citizens; but it proved short-lived. Cal. Statutes, 1851, March 14, p. 424; 1852, p. 84; 1853, March 30, p. 62-5; 1854, 166; 1855, Apr. 28, 30, p. 194, 216; 1853, Apr. 19, p. 141. Cal. Comp. Laws, 1850-3, 218-22; Cal. Jour. Ass., 1853, 704-5, etc.; Auger, Cal., 110-11. It was stated that 8,000 Sonorans stood prepared at Los Angeles to rush to the mines when the repeal law of 1851 was issued. Alt Cal., March 20, 1851. The receipts from the tax for the 2d fiscal year 1850–1 amounted to only $29,991, despite the heavy rate; the 3d fiscal year brought $1,003; the 4th $53,121, at $3; the 5th and 6th, at $4, $100,558, and $123,323, and the following year, 1855-6, brought still more, nearly a half at $6. Cal. Jour. Sen., 1851, pp. 591-8, 660–701; 1855, Apr. 3, p. 27; 1856, p. 400-1, Apr. 22, p. 6; Id., Ass., 1857, Apr. 2, p. 31. Sac. Union, Aug. 13, Sept. 25, Oct. 9, 1855, June 28, Dec. 31, 1856, refers also to fraudulent licenses and evasions. S. F. Manual, 197-204; Hayes' Mining, ii. 20-5; Cal. Revenue, 4-10. The following statistics show the proportion of mining as well as foreigners in each county for the civil year 1856: Foreign Miners' Licenses, 1856, in counties: El Dorado co. $25,300, Placer $14,500, Nevada $10,000, Tuolumne $10,000, Klamath $3,000, Trinity $4,500, Sacto $1,000, Siskiyou $1,000, Butte $10,000,

FOREIGN MINERS' TAX.

74

407

The reduction gave fresh courage to the Mexicans, who with the Mongols constituted almost the exclusive prey of the collector; but it brought little relief from Anglo-Saxon persecution, with the attendant seizures of tempting claims and maltreatment, exclusion from camps and districts and not infrequent bloody encounters when objections were made, a show of armed resistance affording an excuse for even more liberal minded men to regard the safety of the community as endangered and to support the crusaders. The French, with Latin blood and sympathies, suffered so severely from the persecution that their immigration was much reduced, while large numbers sought relief by departing, notably with the disastrous expeditions of Raousset-Boulbon.75 Native Californians found so little protection in their citizenship from similar outrages,

Calaveras $12,500, Shasta $3,500, Mariposa $7,500, Sierra $3,000, Yuba $6,500, Plumas $4,750, Amador $3,850, Stanislaus $400, San Joaquin $500, Tulare $500, Merced $1,000, Fresno $2,000. Total $125,300.

74 Idlers would occasionally raise a 'stake' by a fraudulent double levy of tax, after tearing up the exhibited receipt. For notable outrages, see Cal. Courier, Feb. 18, 1851; Alta Cal., Apr. 30, June 18, 1851; Sac. Transcript, Feb. 28, May 15, 1851, with mention of three encounters, half a score of killed, and consequent exodus of Mexicans. The miners at Rough and Ready in May 1852 prohibited foreigners from mining in the district. S. F. Herald, May 21, 1852. In Mariposa both French and Mexicans were driven off from a series of valuable claims, but the French consul succeeded in reinstating some of the expelled. Alta Cal., May 12-14, June 12-13, July 1, 5, 11, 15-16, 22, 1852. A convention met in Tuolumne on Sept. 18th to consider the question. Id., Sept. 20, 28, Oct. 18; Calaveras Chronicle, Sept. 1852; Echo Pac., July, Sept. 1852; Sonora Herald, Sept., Oct. 1856. At Bidwell's Bar and other places it was resolved not to register claims for foreigners. In 1853 Calaveras county was marked by wide-spread expulsions, with attendant outrages that roused a cry of indignation throughout Mexico. Sonorense, Mar. 25, Apr. 8, 15, 1853, etc.; Rivera, Hist. Jal., iv. 371; Alta Cal., Apr. 20, Aug. 21, Oct. 2, Nov. 1, 1853; March 18, 1854; S. F. Herald, Jan. 29, 1853; S. F. Whig, Jan. 29, 1853, with allusions to squatter outrages. Cronica, Dec. 20, 1854, and Voz Songra, Oct. 5, 1855, etc., continued to deplore the Hispano persecution. Sac. Union, Apr. 9, May 7, 28, July 28, Aug. 11, 14, Sept. 5, 1855, has allusions to Mexican robber depredations and consequent ill feeling in Amador, Calaveras, and adjoining counties. In the summer of 1856 Mexicans were largely expelled from Amador. Id., June 20, Dec. 16, 1856; S. F. Bulletin, May 1, July 2, Dec. 18, 1856; Hayes' Angeles, xviii. 101-3; and so at Greenwood valley and in Mariposa. In Shasta the sheriff had to bring fire-arms to bear on a party intent upon expelling Chinese. Marysville Appeal, Aug. 24, 1867, brings up the fate of the rifles.

75 As related in the chapter on filibustering. Lambertie, Voy., 261-3, and Auger, Cal., 105-13, instance several marked outrages. They acknowledge the lack of unity and perseverance among French parties. See Alta Cal., Apr. 28, 1851, July 1853, etc., for outrages, and preceding notes.

76

from land spoliation and other injustice, which had moreover reduced a large proportion to poverty, that plans for emigrating. to Mexico were widely entertained." In the mines the ill-will turned greatly in a new direction with the growing influx of the yet more obnoxious Chinese, upon whom the wrath of America gradually concentrated.78

76 Officials of their race were treated with contempt, from which many sought to save themselves by taking sides with their oppressors. Pico, Doc., i. 191, 507-9. Incautious arrangements with lawyers, gambling, and extravagant display brought about the ruin of a large proportion of wealthy families. Roach's Stat., MS., 5-6; Alta Cal., Aug. 19, 1851, Aug. 5, 1853.

"The insecurity in Mexico from internal wars, Indian raids, and arbitrary officials alone prevented a large exodus in response to the invitations tendered by states as well as private land-holders. For colony schemes and measures, see Vallejo, Doc., xxxvi. 189, 213; Hist. Doc. Cal., i. 520; iii. 371-82; Sac. Union, Feb. 12, 1855; Savage, Coll., MS., iii. 188; Hist. North Mex. States and Tex., ii., this series, especially in direction of Sonora, for which a special colonization society was formed.

A man whose early life in California is a mosaic of such experiences as are indicated in the above chapter, is Hon. Peter Dean of San Francisco. Born in England Dec. 25, 1828, he came to the U. S. in 1829 with his father's family, his ancestors having been land-owners from the Norman period. Educated in New England, he came to California June 13, 1849, on the second trip of the Oregon, being one of 12 forming the Gaspee mining co. After some experimental mining, the company established a ferry across the Tuolumne river, and afterwards dug a canal to furnish water to miners, neither of which made their fortunes owing to accidents. In the fall of 1851 Dean returned to San Francisco, and in company with Samuel Jackson went to Oregon in a schooner, which was loaded with lumber and live stock for Portland. After getting to sea, a southeast storm disabled the vessel, which was driven up the coast, but finally found its way into Dean's inlet on the mainland east of Queen Charlotte island, where they were detained 43 days, the crew suffering many hardships, after which the vessel was worked back to Puget sound, and Dean went by land to the Columbia river, where he took passage on the steamship Columbia for San Francisco. After mining, trading in cattle in Idaho, and various undertakings in many places, he settled in San Francisco in 1869. Throughout the war period he was an ardent unionist. In 1871 he was elected director of the Pioneer society. In 1873 he was elected school director; and also waschosen vicepresident of the Pioneer society. In 1875 and 1876 he was acting president, and in 1877 was elected president. His politics in 1875 was independent, he being a member of the Dolly Varden convention. In 1877 he was elected to the state senate, and defended the school system of San Francisco against attacks from its enemies. He was in the state convention of the republican party in 1878. He opposed the unlimited coinage of silver, and urged upon congress the policy of governmental control of the transcontinental railways; endeavored to divide the burden of the water-tax between the rate-payer and property-owner; opposed Chinese immigration, and labored for the purity of the ballot, and the registration of voters. Mr Dean has also been prominent in commercial affairs. He was elected president to close up the business of the Masonic bank and Merchant's Exchange bank; and is (1888) president of the Sierra lumber company and holds other official positions; besides attending to an extensive private business.

CHAPTER XVI.

MINING METHODS.

1848-1856.

PRIMITIVE MINING MACHINERY-IMPROVED MEANS FOR POOR DIGGINGSCALIFORNIA INVENTIONS-TOM, SLUICE, FLUMING-HYDRAULIC MINING -DITCHES, SHAFTS, AND TUNNELS-QUARTZ MINING-THE FIRST MILLS -EXCITEMENT, FAILURE, AND REVIVAL-IMPROVED MACHINERY-COOPERATION-YIELD-AVERAGE GAINS-COST OF GOLD-EVIL AND BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MINING.

RICH Surface deposits and few participants did not tend to advance mining methods; but as the easily worked alluvia became scarcer, and the number of miners increased, attention was turned to less remunerative auriferous strata, to be found, not alone in the shallow river bar and gulch diggings which so far had been merely skimmed, but extending through benches above the level of the streams and ravine hollows, and through flats and gravel hills, the deposits of ancient rivers. With these were connected rich beds difficult of access, as in the bottom of rivers, or at a great depth beneath layers of soil of little or no value. All of which required a combination of hands and capital, for removing barren surface, sinking shafts, and driving tunnels, and for machinery with which to perform this wasteful work in the most expeditious manner, and to better extract a compensating amount of gold.

Numbers of experiments were introduced by thoughtful immigrants, but nearly all devised without practical knowledge, and utterly useless. Many excellent ideas.

Instance the cumbrous and complicated sieves, alembics, washers, and digesters mentioned in Burnett's Rec., MS., ii. 42-5; Placer Times, May 26,

were, however, obtained from men conversant with the methods of other countries, and these suggestions assisted in unfolding one method after another. In 1850 the long-tom began to supplant the cradle, of which it formed practically an extension, with a capacity fivefold and upward greater. Complementary to it was the quicksilver machine for saving fine gold.3 Both were replaced within two or three years by the more effective and permanent sluice, an extension of 1849; Swan's Trip, 48-9; Cal. Pioneers, no. 49; Simpson's Gold Mines, 7-8; Auger, Cal., 8-9; Sac. Bee, Jan, 16, 1874; Overland, xiii. 274-85; which drew ridicule upon the owners, and were cast aside often without trial. The expressman Gregory brought out diving suits for which he was offered 700 per cent profit before trial, and Degroot's diving bell raised hopes in many breasts; but they proved worthless.

4

2 An inclined, stationary wooden trough or box from 10 to 30 feet in length, 13 ft in width at the upper end, and widening at the lower end, where perforated sheets of iron are let into the bottom, under which is placed a shallow flat riffle-box, four or five feet long, with cross-bars to catch the running gold. Such bars are sometimes nailed also across the bottom of the upper box to assist in catching the gold. Dirt is shovelled into the upper end by one or more men, and upon it plays a continuous stream brought in hose from the dam above. Other men below assist in dissolving the dirt by stirring it with shovels or forks, and in removing gravel. The puddling box obtained favor where water was scanty and the clay tough. It was a box about 6 feet square wherein the dirt could be stirred in the same water for some time, with a rake, and frequently with animal power. By removing a plug a few inches from the bottom, the slimy matter could be run off and fresh water introduced. The box has been more widely adopted in Australia. Both of these machines existed in cruder forms in Georgia and elsewhere. See Austed's Gold Seeker, 85-7; Zerrenorer, Aulietung, 51, for similar apparatus. Crosby, Stat., MS., 21, refers to toms in May 1849, apparently.

3 Which the simple cross-bars failed to catch. It was a long rocker with perforated iron top throughout, above the riffle-box, above each of whose bars some quicksilver was placed to absorb the gold, which was regained by squeezing the mercury through buckskin and retorting the amalgam. The cradle has been described in the previous chapter on earliest mining methods. The quicksilver machine was introduced from the eastern states in 1849, 3-400 lbs in weight, and costing $1,000-$1,200, as described in Placer Times, Oct. 20, 1849; but by 1850 they were reduced in weight and price from three to six fold. The introduction and improvement are ascribed to C. Bruce, who resided in Mariposa in 1873. Marysville Appeal, Jan. 16, 1873; Sac. Transcript, May 29, 1850; Placer Times, Apr. 13, 1850.

Either may be several hundred feet long. When of board it is made in sections for ready fitting and removal. Small sluices require from half a dozen to a score of men. Large ones demand preliminary hydraulic operations for bringing dirt and a little river of water, which obviate much manual labor. The wear of timber for the boxes, the bottom of which has often to be renewed every 20 days, led to the adoption of the under-current sluice, wherein iron bars and double channels separate the coarse débris from the finer, and allows a more gentle and prolonged current to save more gold. The costly timber is wholly or partly saved by ditch sluices, such as the rock sluice, wherein the bottom is formed of lenticular rolled pebbles or cobblestones overlapping each other in regular order. One form of this is the tail sluice, generally laid in the bed of a creek with larger stones, for washing the