for boy labour was increased to 12 years of age, but with a proviso that boys might still work underground between the years of 10 and 12 if they obtained a certificate that they could read and write, and attended school for 3 hours a day or two days a week.

The age for persons in charge of engines was raised from 15 to 18.

The Act of 1855 was repealed and re-enacted in a strengthened form. The new provisions applied to mines of ironstone in the coal measures. The general rules were increased to 15. The procedure when an inspector notified causes of danger not provided by the rules was again much strengthened. Notice of accidents had now to be given whenever personal injury arose through an explosion, and in all cases of serious personal injury due to other causes. This Act also sanctioned the employment of a 'checkweigher,' paid by the piece-workers, who might be stationed at the place appointed for the weighing, measuring, or gauging of the coal, ironstone, or other material gotten, in order to take an account thereof, and to take an account of the weight, measure, or gauge used therein, on behalf of such persons by whom he was so employed. The name checkweigher' was not actually a legal term till the Act of 1872, summarised below.

A short Act of the year 1862 prohibited the working of mines by single shafts.

The Mines Acts of 1872.-In 1872 two Acts were passed, viz. (a) the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872, which applied to mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shale, and mines of fire-clay; and (b) the Metalliferous Mines Regulation Act, 1872, applying to every mine of whatever description other than a mine to which the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872, applied. The latter Act is still in force, and is summarised in Chapter XVI. By these two Acts the whole mining industry was provided for, and an intelligible classification and differentiation introduced.

The Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1872, swept away all the earlier legislation as to mines as defined by the Act, and re-enacted it in a strengthened form. The following points

may be noticed. For underground work there were now three classes:

(a) Boys between 10 and 12 years of age. For these boys there was a limit of 30 or 36 hours per week, according to the system adopted, with 20 hours' schooling per fortnight.

(b) Boys and male young persons between 12 and 16 years of age. For these there was a limit of 10 hours' work per day, and 54 hours' work per week; and

(c) Males over 16 years of age.

For work above ground there were the following classes: (a) Children between 10 and 13 years of age. As to hours of work and compulsory education these ranked with Class (a) of the boys working underground.

As

(b) Young persons under the age of 16 and women. to hours of labour these ranked with Class (b) of the male young persons working underground. In addition, no woman, young person, or child could be employed above ground on night work (9 P.M. to 5 A.M.) on Sundays, or after 2 P.M. on Saturdays.

(c) Males over 16 years of age.

A register of Classes (a) and (b) working either under ground or above ground had to be kept.

The duties of checkweighers were simplified by making the Weights and Measures Act apply to the weights used in any mine, so that the inspectors of weights under that Act became responsible for the correctness of the weights.

A system under which mines were put in charge of certificated managers was made compulsory, and certificates to future managers were only to be granted as the result of an examination. Certificates could be cancelled in cases of proved unfitness. Returns of mineral wrought and persons employed were made compulsory. The general rules were extended to thirty-one.

Legislation from 1886 to 1911.-The Coal Mines Act, 1886, introduced further elasticity into the appointment of checkweighers, and the collection of their remuneration. It also made provision for the formal investigation of any explosion or accident, and of its causes and circumstances on the direction of a Secretary of State.

These two latter Acts were repealed and re-enacted with amendments by the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1887. The chief new points were (a) the prohibition of work either below ground or above ground by children under the age of 12 years, and (b) the extension of the general rules to thirtynine provisions. This Act of 1887 was almost entirely repealed by the Coal Mines Act, 1911, but Sections 12 to 15, dealing with different aspects of the question of payment by weight (checkweighing), are still law. They are summarised in Chapter XVI., and will be found in full in Appendix XI. (c). An amendment of these provisions was made by the Coal Mines (Checkweigher) Act, 1894, the object of which was to secure complete liberty on the part of the workmen in their appointment of a checkweigher. The text of this Act is given in Appendix XI. (c).

A further Act, the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1896, introduced some important new points. For the first time the scope of special rules was defined; workmen were given representation on arbitrations; the provisions as to plans of mines were elaborated; the general rules were strengthened as to safety-lamps, inspection, and tamping; and a Secretary of State was given conditional powers to prohibit the use of certain explosives. This Act was repealed in 1911.

By the Mines (Prohibition of Child Labour Underground) Act, 1900, a boy under the age of 13 years must not be employed in or allowed to be for the purpose of employment in any mine below ground. As far as coal mines are concerned this has been superseded by the provisions of the Coal Mines Act, 1911, but as regards metalliferous mines it is still in force as an amendment of Section 4 of the Metalliferous Mines Regulation Act, 1872.

The Notices of Accidents Act, 1906, by Sections 1, 2, 3, and 5 amended the law as to returns of accidents in mines and quarries, but so far as regards coal mines those sections have been repealed and superseded by the provisions of the Coal Mines Act, 1911.

In 1908 the Miners' Eight Hours Act was passed. Its official title is the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1908. A

summary of its provisions has already been given in Chapter IV.

In 1910 the Mines Accidents (Rescue and Aid) Act, 1910, was passed for the purpose of making provision (by Order of the Secretary of State) in regard to—

(a) Supply and maintenance of appliances for use in rescue work and formation and training of rescue brigades. (b) Supply and maintenance of ambulance appliances and the training of men in ambulance work.

The Act applied to both coal mines and metalliferous mines. As regards the former it has been repealed by the Coal Mines Act, 1911, and Section 85 of that Act makes the two matters mentioned above the subject of general regulations.

As regards metalliferous mines the Act is still in force, and the necessary procedure for making orders is set out in Appendix XI. (ƒ).

Finally, as regards coal mines, a consolidating Act was passed in 1911, viz. the Coal Mines Act, 1911, to which reference has already been made.

This Act has been slightly amended by the Coal Mines Act, 1914.

CHAPTER XVIII

NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE

THE provision of a compulsory scheme of insurance for employed persons, giving them benefits during periods of sickness, was made by Part I. of the National Insurance Act, 1911, and this part of the Act has since been amended by the National Insurance Act, 1913.

The scheme was extensive and complicated, and of extreme importance from a social point of view. A full exposition of it could not fail to be of considerable length, but fortunately a large proportion of the administrative details are really outside the scope of the present work, which is primarily concerned with the mutual obligations of master and servant. This sketch will be limited to a description of the duties imposed on employers and the benefits conferred on the employed, together with such a description of methods of administration as intelligibility may demand.

The Meaning of Mutual Insurance.-The main scheme of sickness insurance has been framed on a basis of mutual insurance. It is true that the Act provided temporarily a separate scheme for "deposit contributors," on an individual basis, but its provisions were to have come to an end on December 31, 1914, and have only been continued because of the War (see the Expiring Laws Continuance Act, 1914). Only an insignificant fraction of working-class contributors are insured in that section.

Mutual insurance means that a common risk is shared amongst a number of persons. If the number of persons taken is sufficiently large, average results can safely be relied Where the risk is the risk of sickness, and care has

on.