the fashion of the Faery Queen, seems quite rare in prose fiction.

1

99. Character Change. Lotze's clear and simple statement that "the slow shaping of character is the problem of the novel," 1 suggests a vast field of historical, technical, and theoretical interest. Character change, in some form, is found in nearly all extended fictions, but in early works it is often too rapid, or too crude in motivation to be a genuine study of the "problem." The sudden transformations in the characters of Romeo, Proteus, Bertram, and Ferdinand are due in part, no doubt, to the limitations of the drama; but the novel prior to Richardson offers many analogous examples. There is some study of gradual development of character, however, in Euphues, Rosalind, and Jack Wilton. That Defoe takes no low rank in this respect is proved by reference to Colonel Jacque and Moll Flanders, as well as Robinson Crusoe.

Character development may be conceived as mainly an unfolding of original tendency, often with distinct emphasis upon heredity; or as the result of natural or social environment, the influence of the supernatural, or the will of the character himself. The last process is given the general term "characterization" by Giddings,2 and its principal methods are designated as "persistence, accommodation, self-denial, and self-control." The development of a character is generally greatly modified not only by reaction upon the traditions, habits, and will of social groups, but by relations to other individuals. The influence of individual upon individual can be more extensively and more intensively studied in the novel than in any other form of art; and more concretely than in sociology.

1 Outlines of Esthetics; translated by Ladd.

2 Inductive Sociology.

Character development may follow many lines — that of general culture, as in Wilhelm Meister and the educational novel; of emotional power; of artistic genius; of public influence, theological belief, etc. The study which appeals most strongly to many novelists is that of moral development, upward or downward. Bunyan's Mr. Badman gives, in the limited space of a short novel, a very original portrayal of downward movement. Defoe studied both deterioration and improvement. It has often been noted that novelists seem to prefer the development of the bad rather H. than the good as a subject for careful analysis. It is not difficult to give some reasons for this, based on the nature of art; and perhaps some based on ethical and psychological interests. For one thing, progress downward more often shows a symmetrical movement than progress upward.

100. Direct and Indirect Characterization. The most direct manner in which a character appears before the reader is in his speech, actions, and thoughts. His physical presence can be suggested only by the author's description, or the effect on other dramatis personæ. Soliloquy, in the set form found in early fiction, is now practically obsolete; but in modified form it is often perfectly natural to the character, and it serves a unique and valuable function in characterization. Self-characterization, whether in soliloquy or elsewhere, is in a sense less direct than unconscious revelation of character.

The analyses and opinions of the author introduce a third party between the character and the reader, though with very various degrees of intrusion. "Dramatic objectivity" may be violated even in the description of physiognomy. The novelist's approval, hostility, or apology in reference to moral qualities are more important offences against that critical canon.

In John Brent, the author, Theodore Winthrop, gives two paragraphs to his heroine's nose, expressing the opinion that the other facial features are "only tributary to the nose, standing royally in the midst, and with dignity presiding over its wayward realm." He is an anarchist, however, in respect to a certain type of nasal sovereign: "Positive aquiline noses should be cut off. They are ugly; they are immoral; they are sensual."

George Eliot is quite a sinner in the matter of apology, and seems to fear that the reader may identify author with characters. In Adam Bede, for example, she reminds us that Adam "had the blood of the peasant," and gives a satirical analysis of Hetty's character for the "philosophical reader."

On this matter in general compare Sections 58 and 83.

In a strictly dramatic novel, the most important indirect characterization is by means of the dramatis personæ. Theoretically complete survey of any character would include the opinions or unconscious attitude of friend and foe, child and adult, animal and God. In practise, completeness yields to artistic selection, but each point of view has its own peculiar value. A man often has a new conception of his own character in the presence of children or animals not always pleasing to self-conceit. In real life, the supposed opinion of God is often an important element in self-characterization, and in a man's judgment of his fellows. Except in a limited way, the novelist usually gives this opinion only as it appears in the minds of the dramatis personæ.

The fact that any characterization of B by A may clearly reveal the nature of A as well as B is often utilized with much dramatic effect in the novel.

The children of Jane Austen are introduced largely to indicate the character of adults; those of George Eliot frequently have a more independent value, but Eppie, as a child, exists mainly to enrich the characterization of Silas and Godfrey, and focus it.

101. General Methods. Some methods of characterization are based on literary conventions; others on the inherent nature of character study. Such formulas as "indescribable," "not to be analyzed," "a paradox," etc., may be the sincere expression of genius; or may result from incapacity or slovenly talent. The character cast mainly into the mould of a "dominant passion," largely an eighteenth century conception, but imitated in such studies as Père Goriot and Quasimodo, is frequently of literary rather than vital quality. Vague or light impression of character may be quite legitimate in romance aiming to H. liberate rather than discipline the reader's imagination, or to place the æsthetic emphasis upon plot.

In real life, a satisfactory view of individual character is usually a combination of analysis and synthesis. Speaking of over-analysis in artistic characterization, Véron1 says: "We want a mental stimulus, not a treatise on anatomy." Right relations between analysis and synthesis can be attained only by dramatic power, psychological instinct, and human sympathy.

"Hedging," "foil," climax, contrast, and similar methods are effective and based on reality, though often used with much artificiality. Contrast in particular, whether studied in the individual or in a wider area, is an almost indispensable resource; but when realistic, is rarely complete or carried out into antithetical detail. The economic treat- H ment is suggested by Royce: 2

"The consciousness of likeness and of difference help each other; and therefore in a measure it is true that the more we get of one of them, before our knowledge, the more we get of the other. decline altogether to be known separately."

1 Esthetics.

2 Conception of Immortality.

So they

The principle of inference is of wide application, and one constantly employed in the finer effects of characterization.

In the relations of soul and body, it is comparatively immaterial to the novelist whether one trembles because he is afraid, according to the old psychology, or is afraid because he trembles, according to Professor James' hypothesis. In either case the traditional inferences from the physical phenomena are correct for practical purposes of character study.

Many important differences between the presentation of character in the novel and in real life are apparent. In the novel the entire history of a character unfolds before us in a few hours. Our later intimacy may extend over many years, and our conception may undergo great transformation, but the character itself presents no new data. In real life association with human beings involves our influence upon them. The characters of a novel have influenced real persons in countless ways, one famous example is found in the suicides that followed Werther, — but there is no possible influence in the opposite direction. In the novel, again, every character is interpreted in relation to a certain fixed number of persons, events, places, times, emotions, and ideas, and no others; that is, it appears in a plot a type of unity which has no exact model in life itself.

These and similar facts have important effects on the problem of characterization in the novel. Among other results is possibly that of a necessary exaggeration, if the character is to appear in a perspective resembling that of our experience.

102. Group Characterization. In the group, there is always a possible interest in the group itself, and in the individuals composing it. In some ways these two in