each legal subdivision of 40 acres constitutes a unit. The Government is desirous that placer claims conform to legal subdivisions whenever practicable, in such cases permitting the claims to be entered for patent without further survey or plat. For these and other reasons a knowledge of how public land is surveyed and divided is essential. *As a starting point for the surveys a prominent landmark is taken in different localities as an 'Initial Point.' Through the initial point a 'Principal Meridian' is laid off, running north and south and conforming to a true meridian, and also a 'Base Line' running east and west and conforming to a parallel of latitude (Fig. 1). The correct method of designating this initial point is to refer to the base line and the principal meridian that intersect at the point, as Salt Lake Base and Meridian, abbreviated S. L. B. & M.; though the general way is to refer to the meridian only, as Salt Lake Meridian, abbreviated S. L. M. The above is the designation of the initial point upon which the land surveys of the State of Utah are based, the initial point being in Salt Lake City. For the State of Idaho, the Boise Meridian, having its locus at Boise, Idaho, is used. California and Nevada make use of the Mount Diablo and San Bernardino meridians. There are initiated from the principal meridian at intervals of 24 miles, east and west lines conforming to parallels of latitude, and similar to the base line. These are successively known as 'First Standard Parallel North', 'Second Standard Parallel North', 'First Standard Parallel South', etc., as these lines may be north or south of the initial point and base line. From the base line are initiated north and south lines at intervals of 24 miles, known as 'Guide Meridians'. Since all north and south lines converge toward the poles, these guide meridians are started anew from each standard parallel in contradistinction to the principal meridian which runs directly without change to the confines of the area governed thereby. These lines, though broken and displaced each 24 miles, are known and numbered *From author's article, 'Surveying the Public Land of the United States,' in Mining and Scientific Press, January 29, 1910. the courts on grounds that it exceeded its jurisdiction, acted fraudulently, or misinterpreted the law, but not for the continued litigation of the facts that have been or should have been presented to the Land Department. Since the subject of mining law is largely concerned with obtaining title to mineral land, and this title is obtained through and under the supervision of the Land Department, the miner should clearly understand the functions and workings of that department. The States which are spoken of as the mining-law States, for the reason that the mining law is in daily use in them and that they are generally assumed to be the whole field of American mining law, are California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and the District of Alaska. It will be noticed that they include, besides the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States, the Dakotas and Alaska. Of the remaining States, many never had any public domain; to others the mining laws were not extended or were subsequently repealed. The law has some force and utility in Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and parts of Oklahoma, but owing to the almost total absence of public mineral land in those States, they will not be considered. Texas having joined the United States as a sovereign power, retained possession of her unoccupied unclaimed land, enacting a State code of mining laws to govern them. For the Philippine Islands special mining laws have been provided. The possessions of the United States outside of Alaska and the Philippines have no mining laws. Besides knowing whence and how title is derived to mineral and other public land, it is highly important to know how this land is mapped and designated, and how it is marked in the field. In making a mineral location upon public domain, it is usually not necessary to know upon what section of land it is, or to tie the location to a land survey monument, possibly excepting placers; but with agricultural and other entries and patents rapidly encroaching on mineral lands, it is often necessary in trying to keep clear of them, or in the case of disputes, to be able to find tracts of land in the field by their markings. In case of a contest between mineral and agricultural claimants, each legal subdivision of 40 acres constitutes a unit. The Government is desirous that placer claims conform to legal subdivisions whenever practicable, in such cases permitting the claims to be entered for patent without further survey or plat. For these and other reasons a knowledge of how public land is surveyed and divided is essential. *As a starting point for the surveys a prominent landmark is taken in different localities as an 'Initial Point.' Through the initial point a 'Principal Meridian' is laid off, running north and south and conforming to a true meridian, and also a 'Base Line' running east and west and conforming to a parallel of latitude (Fig. 1). The correct method of designating this initial point is to refer to the base line and the principal meridian that intersect at the point, as Salt Lake Base and Meridian, abbreviated S. L. B. & M.; though the general way is to refer to the meridian only, as Salt Lake Meridian, abbreviated S. L. M. The above is the designation of the initial point upon which the land surveys of the State of Utah are based, the initial point being in Salt Lake City. For the State of Idaho, the Boise Meridian, having its locus at Boise, Idaho, is used. California and Nevada make use of the Mount Diablo and San Bernardino meridians. There are initiated from the principal meridian at intervals of 24 miles, east and west lines conforming to parallels of latitude, and similar to the base line. These are successively known as 'First Standard Parallel North', 'Second Standard Parallel North', 'First Standard Parallel South', etc., as these lines may be north or south of the initial point and base line. From the base line are initiated north and south lines at intervals of 24 miles, known as 'Guide Meridians'. Since all north and south lines converge toward the poles, these guide meridians are started anew from each standard parallel in contradistinction to the principal meridian which runs directly without change to the confines of the area governed thereby. These lines, though broken and displaced each 24 miles, are known and numbered *From author's article, 'Surveying the Public Land of the United States,' in Mining and Scientific Press, January 29, 1910. Fig. 1. successively from the principal meridian, as 'First Guide Meridian East', 'Second Guide Meridian East'. Special base lines and meridians have been established to govern lesser areas remote from the main initial points where it was impossible or impracticable to carry the standard parallels over the mountains. The Uintah Base and Meridian, governing the northeast part of Utah, is an example. Local standard parallels or guide meridians have sometimes been established where necessitated. The tracts, 24 miles square, are subsequently divided into 'Townships', 6 miles square, by east and west lines intersecting north and south lines. The townships in turn are divided into 36 tracts, known as 'Sections', each one mile square, and containing 640 acres; these are numbered as shown in the diagram (Fig. 2). Only the exterior boundaries of the sections are run by the Government, but corner stones or monuments are placed each half-mile on these lines, that the sections may be readily divided into 'Quarter Sections'. Each quarter section is held to contain four square 40-acre tracts-'Quarter-Quarters'-the smallest legal subdivision; though the Government in the case of patenting placer claims conforming to the land surveys does recognize and allow entry on 10-acre tracts, that are the regular subdivisions of these 40-acre subdivisions. Any row, or series of continuous townships, extending east and west, is spoken of as 'Townships', though the proper term is 'Tier', but the latter is not used. Any row or series running north and south is known as a 'Range.' A township in the first row of townships north or south of the base line and initial point or meridian is designated as Township 1 North, or Township 1 South, while a township in the second row becomes Township 2 North, or Township 2 South, etc. Similarly the rows of townships east and west of the principal meridian and the initial point are known as Range 1 East, Range 1 West, Range 2 East, Range 2 West, etc. By co-ordinating these systems of numbering, easy reference can be made to any township. In the diagram, the township designated by A is known as Township 2 North, Range 3 West, Salt Lake Meridian, and is abbreviated T. 2 N., R. 3 W., S. L. M. Likewise the township indicated by B is T. 5 N., R. 5 W., S. L. M., while C is T. 1 S., R. 1 E., S. L. M. The method of surveying a township into sections, the exterior boundaries of the township having been run, and all monuments on these lines having been placed, is ordinarily to start from the south boundary of the township and close the survey on the east, north, and west boundaries. Starting from the southeast corner of Section 35 on the southern boundary of the township, the surveyor will run a line north, noting the topography of the country he passes over and recording the distance in chains of 66 ft., or 80 to the mile. At 40 chains, or one-half mile, he will set a rough undressed stone or a |