element for the support of his power, while he disbanded the Pretorian, or royal Guard, which had for two hundred years assumed to make and unmake emperors, and whose example, imitated by the other armies, kept the world periodically disturbed by the disputes and battles of rival claimants to the imperial purple. By the 313- edict of Milan, Constantine abolished all laws unfriendly to Christianity; he restored the authority of the senate and magistrates, and removed his capital from Rome to Constantinople. 324 -The pagan element was now so worn and decrepid that no general disorders resulted. Whatever was left rallied under Licinus, who was conquered by Constantine. It appears to have been the strength of the Christian element and its essential hostility to the Roman principle of violent subjugation that produced so many and fierce persecutions. Had it not been for the pressure of barbarians on the empire the prevalence of that system would have preserved society and the state for a thousand years more, as it actually did in the Eastern empire; but every thing that man has the management of must be affected by his limitations, his mistakes and his follies. Christianity needed a better ally, a fresher and purer society, built up by the young blood and better instincts of another and newer people. Constantine paid great respect to the clergy of the church and took a leading part in its general counsels a great mistake and a great misfortune. 325- His spiritual supremacy was virtually acknowledged at the council of Nice which he convoked. 330-Constantine died leaving his vast dominions to his three sons, who, in the course of ten years, were reduced to one, Constantius. After a troubled reign of twenty 361 years more, he died, and was succeeded by his cousin Julian, called the "Apostate," from his renouncing Christianity and laboring to restore the pagan religion. In this he signally failed. He undertook to rebuild the 363 He was mortally wounded in an invasion of Persia, and was succeeded by Jovian, who restored imperial favor 364 to the Christian religion. He died after one years reign and Valentinian was elected emperor by the council of ministers and generals. He divided the empire with his brother, Valens, and afterward Rome and Constantinople usually had each an emperor. Valentinian died 375 and was succeeded by his son, Gratian. 378- The Huns appeared in Europe, having wandered from the borders of China, and defeated Valens with dreadful slaughter. Valens himself was among the slain. This was the commencement of the great migrations that finally overwhelmed the Roman Empire of the west. 379 Gratian, left sole emperor, appointed Theodosius, called The Great, his colleague, who subdued the Goths, repelled the Huns, and restored order. 383 Gratian was murdered by the usurper Maximus. 388-Theodosius conquered and put Maximus to death and 394 402 410 restored Valentinian II., brother of Gratian, to the throne of the western empire. In a few years the whole empire was reunited by the death of Valentinian. Theodosius soon died, universally lamented, leaving the two empires to his sons, Honorius and Arcadius. Alaric, the Goth, invaded Italy and, though defeated, endangered the safety of Rome. 408 Theodosius II. succeeded to the empire of the east. - Alaric again invaded Italy and sacked Rome. Alaric soon after died and his forces were pursuaded, by negotiations, to leave Italy, but they permanently established themselves in Spain and Southern Gaul (France). Thus the empire began to fall to pieces. 425 Honorius died and Valentinian III. became emperor. 429 The Vandals soon conquered the Roman provinces in Africa, under their king, Genseric. They extended 440 their conquests to Sicily. 447 — Attila, called the "Scourge of God," appeared at the head of the Huns, and Theodosius made a humiliating treaty with him to save his dominions from desolation. 448 - In the next year the Saxons and Angles were invited into Britain by the civilized Romans, to protect them from the Picts and Scots, and laid the foundation of the modern Anglo-Saxon race, and the Franks invaded Gaul laying the foundations of the modern kingdom of France. England received its name from the Angles - France from the Franks. 451 - Attila, the Hun, invaded Gaul, and was defeated at 452 - Chalons, by the united Romans and Visigoths. Attila then invaded Italy and laid it waste, but died before he 454 — had completed the ruin of the empire. Valentinian III. was murdered, and the Vandals from Sicily invaded Italy and sacked Rome. SECTION XIII. THE RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 476- After a succession of puppet emperors in Rome, Odoacer abolished the name and took the title of king of Italy. He was a German in command of the auxiliaries in Roman pay. Thus ended, in disaster and disgrace, the once mighty Roman Empire. Its ruin was gradual and the barbarians who overthrew it had already embraced Christianity, so that the institutions of the church did not share its fall. 486 Clovis, king of the Franks, defeated the Romans and Gauls at the battle of Soissons. The Ostrogoths invaded 492 Italy under Theodoric the Great, deposed Odoacer, and founded a new kingdom. 496.- Clovis defeated the invading Germans and embraced 500 Christianity. Clovis next defeated the Burgundians. 507 He subdued the Visigoths and all France was united under one rule. He was of the Merovingian line, or dynasty, of kings, which lasted over two hundred years, during which the remains of Roman civilization and the influence of the church were gradually modifying and penetrating the character of a new and energetic race. 527 Justinian became the ruler of the Eastern or Grecian Empire. 534 His generals waged war with the Vandals in Africa and the Ostrogoths in Italy, and after eighteen years of conflict, succeeded in reconquering part of Italy, which the Greek emperors continued to hold nominally for about three hundred years; the seat of their representative being at Ravenna. He was called an Exarch. Rome itself was left, substantially, to the control of the Christian bishop. When the Lombards founded a king568 dom in the north of Italy they were prevented, by the exarch and bishop, from spreading over the southern part; and when the exarch threatened to become too powerful to suit the views of the bishop, he supported the Lombards. Thus the temporal or political power of the popes arose, and they were the politic authors of the "Balance of Power" theory, or system, that has played so large a part in European history. The result has been exceedingly favorable to progress in all directions, since it has secured the independence of states, and a more various and perfect civilization by the development of the special genius of each people. Many circumstances conspired to support this idea, in later times, and render it very prominent and influential. This gradual advance of the bishop of Rome in political influence associated him with the mighty memories of the "Eternal City," and suggested the idea of a spiritual empire over all Christendom, which gradually became realized and quite changed the char 732 acter of Christianity for near 800 years. Hurtful as it ultimately became, by reviving a universal despotism over conscience and freedom of thought, it was long powerful for good by giving a common centre to Europe, broken into fragments as it was by the rise of feudalism. That was disorganizing; this was centralizing, and kept the channels of communication open and the missionary spirit and the elements of a restored learning in activity. Its influence in commencing and carrying forward the crusades, which substantially broke the strength of feudalism, was of immense import ance. 622-Mahomet arose in the Arabian peninsula, and his new religion spread with astonishing rapidity. In one hundred years from the death of Mahomet the Saracens had established a vast empire, covering two thirds of the Roman empire, viz.: all of the old Persian empire, Egypt, and all of nothern Africa and Spain, and threatened to inundate Europe. They poured a vast army over the Pyrenees into France. This was defeated in a great battle at Tours, by Charles Martel, who founded a new dynasty, replacing the Merovingian, called the Carlovingian, and made France the most powerful, as it became the leading, nation in Europe, for promoting civilization during many centuries. By this means the center of political influence, "The Star of Empire," took another step westward. His son, Pepin le Bref, or the Short, caused himself to be 752 crowned king of France by the Roman Pontiff, Stephen II, which added to his own prestige, as it also did to that of the pope. It was a sort of league between the rising temporal and spiritual powers in Europe, and set an example long followed. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, the son of Pepin, ascended the throne in 771, 771 and by his intelligence, energy, and wise statesmanship, encouragement of learning, his organizing talents by his |