itative information to the people that something has been done, or will soon be done, which is important for them to know, that they may act, or refrain from acting according to the information contained in the proclamation. These proclamations are made known to the country through the most extensive channels of information that can be used for conveying intelligence to everybody in the Republic. In our day, and in our country, the newspapers are the best means that can be used for this purpose. But in ancient times, and before the art of printing was known, swift riders or runners were dispatched to every part of the kingdom or country over which the proclamation was to be made known. These messengers carried it with them, and proclaimed it in the ears of all the people.

2. These documents are official acts brought before the people in due form and solemnity. Sometimes they are only recommendations; at others they have all the force of organic law, or the acts of Congress.

It has, for some years, been the custom of the Executive to designate some day toward the close of the year as a day of thanksgiving, recommending the day to be observed in a religious manner. Important changes in the commercial affairs between us and some foreign country are made known by the same method.

3. A memorable proclamation was made by President Lincoln, in 1862, by which he made known to the country, and especially to the Southern States, that if they continued their war against the United States for one hundred days after its issuance, he would then, in virtue of his authority as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, liberate the slaves in all the seceded States. At the expiration of the time, which was on the first of January, 1863, he issued another proclamation, in and by which he did emancipate all the slaves in every State which had warred against the United States government. The blockading of our ports at the commencement of the civil war, and the imposition of an embargo upon our ship

ping, previous to the last war with England, were both subjects which brought out proclamations from the President who then filled the Executive chair.

4. The above examples show the character of the cases which cause proclamations to be issued. In some instances they have the authority of law; in others they are merely recommendations; and in others only communicate important intelligence in regard to our public affairs at home or abroad.

CHAPTER VIII.

COMMISSIONERS.

1. As it is one purpose of this work to give a clear and complete account of the mode of conducting the affairs of the general government, we have thought it best to call attention to the class of officers named at the head of this chapter; and especially since persons acting under this title are assigned to a variety of duties, sometimes permanent and sometimes temporary. In the first place, they act as heads of bureaus in the various departments. These commissioners are permanent officials of the government, established and provided for by law; such are the commissioners of the land office, patent office, pension office, &c.

2. Another class of commissioners can hardly be considered officers, but rather temporary or special agents. In the multifarious duties devolving upon Congress, the President, and all the departments, it not unfrequently happens that it is impracticable for them to do certain things necessary to be done. The business to be transacted may be at a great distance from the capital, even in a foreign country. In these cases commissioners are appointed to do such business. They have been appointed to negotiate a peace, to make treaties of various kinds between us and other powers, and to negotiate with the Indians for the purchase of their lands. The United States courts appoint them to take bail, or to take testimony to be

used on trials, and do various other things necessary in trials and proceedings before them.

3. Congress frequently appoints commissioners to obtain information, or to investigate some matter on which they expect to legislate. In all cases they must report their proceedings, either to Congress, to the President, or to the head of the department under whose instruction they act. Permanent commissioners report once a year, or oftener if required, that Congress may know the condition of affairs in their respective bureaus. Special commissioners, after they have performed the work assigned, make their report; after which their duties cease, and their commission comes to an end.

4. The lowest grade of diplomatic agents are called commissioners. We are thus represented at the present time in the Republics of Hayti and Liberia.

5. By recent acts of Congress, the powers of commissioners in some cases have been enlarged. They now examine persons charged with crimes against the laws of the United States; hold them to bail, discharge them, or commit them to prison; and do other magisterial acts, preliminary to the trial of the accused. When acting in such cases, they are clothed with some of the powers of a court.

CHAPTER IX.

OFFICIAL REGISTER.

1. Congress, in 1816, passed an act authorizing and requir ing the Secretary of State, once in two years, to print and publish a book called "the official register," in which he was ordered to register the name of every officer and agent of the government, in the civil, military and naval departments, including cadets and midshipmen, together with the compensation received by each; the names of the State and county where born; and the name of the place where employed, whether at home or abroad.

To the list of persons employed in the Navy Department, the Secretary of the Navy is required to subjoin the names, force and condition of all the ships and vessels belonging to the United States, and when and where built.

This work has been published and distributed, as the law directs, ever since the passage of the act, and is sometimes denominated "the blue book." It is a very convenient and useful publication, as it shows in compact form the whole official force of the government in each department, together with the cost of maintaining it.

As it contains only names and dates and facts relating to persons, comparatively few would take the pains to read it, and but a small number is published. It can be found in the Congressional library at Washington, where twenty-five copies of each edition are deposited.

CHAPTER X.

THE STARS AND STRIPES.

A nation's Flag represents its sovereignty. It is adopted by its supreme authority as a symbol or sign of itself, and wherever it waves the fact of the substantial control of that authority, at that point, is thereby asserted. If there is a struggle between two powers for control, the presence of the flag proves that the authority it represents still maintains itself, and its subjugation is declared by lowering its flag and by the substitution of another in its place.

The flag is, therefore, an expression to the eye of the condition of things; and attracts the sympathies and antipathies, the joys and sorrows, the hopes and fears of those interested in the sovereignty it represents. It is the rallying point of sentiment and of energy. The affection and reverence bestowed on our country will light up into a patriotic flame at sight of its flag. It is associated with all the heroic deeds and achievments that adorn our national history, and with the loss of all

those we honored and loved who followed and fought for it, and gave their lives in its defense. Our "Star Spangled Banner has been a thousand times baptized in blood dearer to us than our own, and the sight of it recalls all these sacrifices so cheerfully made to establish or to preserve our institutions. The flag of the United States may well call forth more enthusiastic affection, pride, and hope than any other in the world; for it symbolizes not only home, country, and associations dear to Americans, but the justice, liberty, and right of self government that are dear to all mankind. Humanity at large has a deep interest in it.

Its history is this: Soon after the Declaration of Independence the Continental Congress appointed a committee to confer with Gen. Washington and "design a suitable flag for the nation." After the painful and depressing defeat on Long Island, the retreat through the Jerseys and across the Delaware, when everything seemed lost for the new government, Washington suddenly struck the vigorous blows at Trenton and Princeton that confounded the enemy and drove him back to Staten Island. Congress and the country were cheered with a hope and a resolution that never afterwards failed them; for in the next campaign occurred the capture of Burgoyne, followed by the treaty with France; and the close of the war in our favor was henceforth only a question of time.

In the month of May or early June, 1777, following the staggering blow Washington had given the British army in Jersey, the committee referred to above, and Washington, completed the design for a flag. This was accomplished and the first flag made at the house of a Mrs. Ross, in Arch St., Philadelphia. The house is still standing No. 239. She had a shop where she followed the "upholder" trade, as it was ther called the same as our upholstering. One day the Commander-in-chief, Hon. Geo. Ross, a relative of hers, and certain members of Congress, called on her, with a design for a flagthirteen red and white stripes, alternate with thirteen six pointed stars and requested her to make the flag. She con