inalpsychologie und Strafrechtliche Psychopathologie auf naturwissenchaftlicher Grundlage); Tarde, Penal Philosophie'; Wulffen, 'Psychologie des Verbrechers.> MAURICE PARMELEE, Author of The Science of Human Behavior'; 'Criminology', etc. CRIMP, an agent who for a commission supplies ships with seamen, the term being applied especially to low characters who decoy sailors by treating them, advancing money to them, and giving them goods on credit, till they have them in their power, frequently getting them shipped off in a drunken state after all their money is spent. They also keep an outlook for emigrants, and take them to low lodging-houses, in which they themselves are interested. There are laws protecting seamen from the extortion of crimps and their dealings with masters of vessels, but these are unable to reach a very large proportion of cases. a CRINOID, krīʼnoid, or SEA-LILY, stalked echinoderm usually fixed to the sea bottom by a jointed stem so as to present a flowerlike form. The body is more or less cupshaped, with 5 to 40 jointed flexible arms subdivided into branches, and bearing pinnules, all made up of minute bony plates, which in some of the larger fossil species numbered over 150,000. The arms may be absent in the blastoids (Pentremites) and certain cystideans, but the pinnules remain. There are not now many existing species, the greater number (nearly 1,000) having become extinct. A typical crinoid is Pentacrinus, which lives attached to rocks in the West Indies at all depths from 20 to 3,000 fathoms; it is about a foot high, the arms much subdivided, the joints of the stem five-sided. In one fossil species the stalk was more than 50 feet long. In geologic times crinoids often grew in dense forest-like masses. A curious little living crinoid is a slender simple form about two inches high, which lives at the depth of from 100 to 1,000 fathoms on the coast of Norway and in the Straits of Florida in the cold water under the tepid Gulf Stream. It is a survivor of a genus of the Cretaceous Period. A north Atlantic shoal-water form is the Antedon (Comatula), which in its early youth is fixed to the bottom by a stalk, but which becomes free when mature; it also inhabits the Mediterranean Sea. The existing crinoids, more than 200 species, are merely the remnants from a much larger assemblage of fossil forms, which begin to appear in the rocks of the Cambrian, culminate in the early Palæozoic and decline toward the end of that period. At first small and delicate, they became larger and coarser in the later rocks. They flourished in greatest numbers about palæozoic coral reefs in shallower water than at present. The most famous American fossil crinoid beds are those of the Subcarboniferous limestones of Burlington, Iowa and Crawfordsville, Ind. Thick beds of crinoidal limestones were deposited in various parts of the world at various periods and under favorable conditions from the Ordovician to the Jurassic Period, those of the Carboniferous and of the upper Muschelkalk, the lower beds forming the so-called Trochitenkalk, being especially characteristic, and consisting almost wholly of stems of Encrinus liliformis, the "stone lily." Crinoids are divided into three classes. The oldest, most generalized and primitive appears to be the class Cystoidea. These were more or less spherical in form, either with imperfectly developed arms, or without, and stalked or not. About 250 species are known. They date from the Cambrian Period, culminated in the Ordovician and Silurian Periods, then suddenly diminished in numbers, finally disappearing before the close of the Permian. The second class is the Blastoidea, or bud-shaped crinoids, represented by Pentremites, which were short-stemmed or entirely stemless. The arms are short, recumbent and appear as if soldered to the calyx or body. These have not yet been detected in strata lower than the Silurian and the type became most numerous in the Subcarboniferous limestones of the United States. Upward of 120 species have been recognized. The third class is Crinoidea proper. The three classes are arranged under the sub-branch, Pelmatozoa. New species are constantly being found, notably in the waters of the Philippines, Africa and the Hawaiian Islands, and a few along the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Consult Clark, A. H., A Monograph of Existing Crinoids (United States National Museum Bulletin 82, Washington 1915); Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vols. 34 onward: Zittel, K. A. von (Eastman's trans.), Text-book of Palæontology' (London 190002). CRINOLINE (Fr., from Lat. crinis, hair), properly a kind of fabric made chiefly of horse hair, but generally applied to a kind of petticoat supported by steel hoops, and intended to distend or give a certain set to the skirt of a lady's dress. Hooped skirts are by no means a new invention of fashion, a somewhat similar monstrosity, supported by whalebone, being worn in the time of Queen Elizabeth and James I, and the fashion being again introduced in the time of George II. The earlier hooped petticoats were called fardingales or farthingales. The crinoline proper came in about 1856, and was worn by women of all ranks, and sometimes reached portentous dimensions, so as to be not only very inconvenient to the wearer and all coming in contact with her, but also the cause of accidents from fire, etc. The immense bell-shaped crinolines fell into disuse about 1866. Crinoline wire was for years a leading branch in the steel trade. A horse-hair and cotton fabric used as a material for making ladies' bonnets is also called crinoline. CRINUM, kri'nŭm, a genus of bulbousrooted herbs of the family Amaryllidacea. The numerous and widely distributed species are characterized by rather broad, usually persistent leaves, and umbels of few to many funnelshaped flowers, often deliciously fragrant. The flowers are usually pure white, with bands of purple or red, or tinted throughout with one of these colors. Several species are widely popular as greenhouse specimens and in the warm South and California as outdoor subjects on lawns. C. americanum, the Florida swamp lily, is common in wet ground in the Gulf States. C. longifolium and C. moorei are somewhat hardy, the former as far north as Washington, the latter not quite so far. Both these species blossom continuously through the summer; the others generally have a short season of bloom. More than 20 species with many horticultural CRIPPLE CREEK - CRISES varieties are cultivated in American gardens and greenhouses. They differ widely in their demands as to cultivation, for an account of which, and also for a description of the popular species, consult Bailey, 'Cyclopedia of American Horticulture (1914). CRIPPLE CREEK, Colo., city and countyseat of Teller County, on the Florence and Cripple Creek and the Midland Terminal railroads, 50 miles west of Colorado Springs. It is the trade centre for the Cripple Creek mining district, in which the output of gold from 1890 to 1916 was $301,000,000. The town has several cyanide mills, smelters and other mining industries, a national bank and daily and weekly newspapers. It was founded in 1890, and was nearly destroyed by fire in 1896. Several great labor strikes have taken place here. The Roosevelt Drainage tunnel opened in 1910 has greatly increased mine values by unwatering the field which covers an area of nearly six miles, onetenth of which alone has been developed. Pop. 6,206. CRIPPLED CHILDREN. See CHILDREN, DEFECTIVE. CRISES, Economic. Crises are periods of financial or commercial and industrial depression or disturbance, distinguished by sudden and general efforts to liquidate, by scaling down of prices, by restriction of credit and by widespread failures, insolvencies and bankruptcies. The words crisis and panic are used interchangeably, though the former is the more nearly correct term denominating the period during which industry changes from a state of prosperity to one of depression. The word panic more fittingly describes a briefer period, or an acute phase not always appearing in crises, during which the morale and judgment of the business community are seriously upset by fear of impending trouble. Lord Overstone has described the sequence of phenomena known as a "business cycle" as follows: "State of quiescence, improvement, growing confidence, prosperity, excitement, overtrading, convulsions, pressure, stagnation, distress, ending again in quiescence." The period of expansion of business, accompanied by increased activity in production and commerce, known as "good times," is followed by a period during which, owing to rapidly advancing prices of materials and labor, some enterprises find their profits considerably reduced. Accordingly they contract their operations, dispense with a portion of their workmen, restrict their purchases of raw materials and thus affect adversely the industries supplying the materials and encroach upon the ability of the workmen to continue their former scale of living. There is a consequent decline in the demand for general commodities and the curtailment extends in ever-widening circles until the whole business system is affected. One or two failures may force other houses to suspend and general disaster follows, panic rules and total collapse seems imminent. The recovery is slow, a period of stagnation or depression follows, during which business is at its lowest ebb, and before confidence is completely restored, considerable time has elapsed. Business then begins to improve and expand, prices begin to soar, activity increases, and another period of prosperity is at hand, good times prevailing until again checked by a new crisis. A 205 depression of business need not constitute a crisis but may be only a period during which business and commercial activities are below the normal standards; a depression may exist independently, but usually follows a crisis. Many reasons have been advanced for crises but the actuating causes are never twice alike, one crisis being caused by the failure of some great firm or firms, another by war, another by monetary legislation, another by stock market speculation, another by bad harvests, another by over-expansion of world commerce, another by a change of a nation's political policies, which may cause investors to become timid and reluctant to loan their capital to enterprises that may not receive the protection through national economic policies considered necessary and adequate to their stability and success. A century or two ago local distress might have been caused by crop failures or some other calamities, and panic might have been induced by such wild-cat adventures as the South Sea and the Mississippi Bubbles (qq.v. See also Law, JOHN), but these events had not the farreaching effects characterizing modern industrial disturbances and, therefore, we may say that crises are practically 19th century phenomena. Some assert that capital forms more rapidly than fields wherein to invest it safely and profitably and as profits decrease capitalists are liable to make investments of an unusual or hazardous nature, resulting in the total loss or destruction of capital and the consequent general alarm and crisis. A theory advanced by Ricardo and elaborated by Rodbertus is the "iron law of wages," under which the laborer does not receive all he produces either in the commodity produced, in a commodity of corresponding value which he may need, or in an equivalent wage, but receives a sum so small as to place him under the necessity of continuing his work of reproduction in order that he may not starve, thereby maintaining the supply of labor. The capitalist takes the difference between the laborer's wages and the selling price of the commodity and, being unable to spend the total amount and anxious to increase his power or the earning capacity of his surplus wealth, converts it into capital through investment. Thus capital increases more rapidly than the laborer's ability to purchase, resulting in a so-called over-production, though the Socialists insist that this actually is an under-consumption. Ultimately this results in an industrial disaster. Much space is devoted by economists to the subject of credit and its abuses as a cause of crises. The extensive obligations contracted during normal times to conduct business enterprises are based largely on physical assets and partly on the faith of the lender in the ability, character and integrity of the borrower. Such obligations are usually of indefinite maturity, though the loans are mostly for a short time only, and the borrower may be called upon to liquidate his indebtedness quickly. Good times may mean easy money and the unwary capitalist may loan his money to inexperienced, incapable, oversanguine or speculative investors. One of the results of easy money is the tendency of those in charge of business enterprises, on obtaining a loan, to divert the funds to other than immediate actual requirements. During periods of depression production is curtailed and often discontinued entirely, wherefore stocks of goods become depleted. On the return of confidence and the renewal of activity, through the resumption of buying by the public, the manufacturing plants experience difficulty in filling orders and their owners or managers therefore borrow money or cut down their working capital to remodel and extend their plants or to purchase extra equipment or for some other form of fixed asset. Often large sums are invested merely in anticipation of future increase in demand and production, mills and railroads being excellent examples of such preparations for future prosperity. Usually this work is carried too far; the means of production outstrip the demand for goods; the ratio between current assets and liabilities is reduced; and such enterprises, with impaired working capital, are liable to insolvency when trade depression sets in. In order to prevent the disruption of industry through the over-extension of credit there must be some means to safeguard the granting of short time or indefinite credits and an emergency currency that will allow a large portion of these loans to be liquidated safely within the brief period of a panic. The usual safeguards are the credit reports of the mercantile associations, the registry of commercial paper and the demand for audits by certified public accountants. The facilities for quick liquidation have been extended by the Federal Reserve system of banks. See CREDIT; CURRENCY; BANKS AND BANKING FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM. Crises have been confined practically to western Europe and to the more advanced American countries. In the United States the most notable crises have been those of 1819, 1837, 1854, 1857, 1873, 1884, 1893 and 1907. These were nearly coincident with crises occurring in England, and the crises of 1836-39, 1857 and 1873 may be called international in extent. Prior to and during the War of 1812 there had been much wild-cat banking and the country was launched on a paper money era, the banks being unable to secure specie sufficient to redeem even a small portion of their paper. In 1814 Congress refused a charter to a proposed national bank and people began to lose faith in banks and to withdraw their money. Banks in the South ceased to redeem their notes and on 28 Aug. 1814 the Philadelphia banks suspended specie payments, followed by others in the North and in Ohio, until every bank in the seaboard States had taken similar action. But by threats and legislation the State and Federal governments compelled these banks to resume specie payments which the majority had done by the latter part of 1817. Meanwhile in 1816 Congress had established a bank of the United States to regulate the currency. On the conclusion of the war foreign trade began to revive which required vast sums of money; in 1814, while the blockade was in force, the imports were valued at $12,965,000 and exports at $6,927,441, but in 1815 these figures had risen to $113,041,274 and $52,557,753 respectively and in 1816 to $147,103,000 and $81,920,452. Furthermore, during the blockade, when commerce was practically at a standstill, the merchants transferred their capital to manufacturing establishments and when the lifting of the blockade resulted in a vast influx of foreign made goods, protection was demanded for the industries, resulting in the enactment of a protective tariff in 1816 (amended in 1818). Meanwhile in 1815 a commercial convention had been concluded with Great Britain, under the terms of which each country was to regulate, as it saw fit, its trade with British North American and West Indian possessions. In retaliation for a supposed discrimination against them in American regulations, the merchants of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick secured the passage of the "Plaster of Paris" Act which prevented the transportation of this article in American vessels to the place of consumption. Great Britain then excluded American ships from the West Indies and as these acts rendered idle 100,000 tons of American shipping, the shipping interests were prostrate, all allied trades languished, and thousands of mechanics were thrown out of work. In 1811 steamboats had been introduced on Western waters and capital and enterprise turned to the task of opening the West. Owing to the ease with which people could secure paper money from the wild-cat banks, there was widespread speculation in lands, the record of public land sales being 270,000 acres in 1813, 1,120,000 in 1815, 2,160,000 in 1817, 5,470,000 in 1819 and 820,000 in 1820. Everyone hastened to plunge into debt, expecting to become rich thereby, but when the banks began to contract their discounts and currency began to be reduced, the debtors were unable to meet their obligations and general bankruptcy followed with its attendant hardships in all circles. There was a general depression in business. Many blamed the tariff but the greatest outcry was against the banks, both State and National, and accordingly there was a wave of anti-banking excitement throughout the country. But this soon subsided, the States enacted stay laws, prohibited imprisonment for debts less than certain amounts, passed acts against usury, and conditions became about normal in 1821. In 1832 President Jackson became convinced that the Bank of the United States was using its funds insidiously and ordered the government funds deposited therein to be withdrawn. Since $9,891,767 in public money was on deposit, the bank was compelled to curtail its loans and could not use any of the public deposits for the benefit of the commercial community. As a result money became scarce, discounts rose rapidly and in 1833 many business houses failed. Jackson's quarrel with the bank resulted, in 1834, in its failure to secure a renewal of its charter, and its career as a national institution was practically ended. Almost simultaneously the national debt was paid off and the treasury began to have a surplus, wherefore a bill was passed in 1836 providing that all but $5,000,000 of the money in the treasury on 1 Jan. 1837 should be deposited with the several States in proportion to their representation in Congress, and in order to safeguard the deposits the Secretary of the Treasury was to select the State banks for depositories. The effect of this distribution of surplus revenue among the States was the formation of new banks with nominal capital and the flooding of the country with paper money. In 1837 there were more than 600 such banks with an aggregate capital of $291,000,000, of which $149,000,000 was in circulating notes and $127,000,000 in deposits, while their total loans and discounts amounted to |