measures.

Transportation and Communication.— The Costa Rica Railway runs from Limón to the cities of the central uplands, and has several branch lines; the Pacific Railway connects San José with a good harbor on the western coast. In all, there were, in 1916 in Costa Rica, 693 kilometers (433 miles) of railways, of which 134 kilometers (84 miles) were owned by the government. The lines are the Northern Railway Company, 225 kilometers (140 miles), and the Costa Rica Railway, 334 kilometers (208 miles). As the latter is leased to the Northern they together form a system of 348 miles under one management. The rapid growth of the banana trade has called into being railway lines in the coast regions. The Northern Railway has an extension down the coast southward from Bananito River, near Port Limón, with short branches running into the fruit districts. A line was also being extended northward in 1917. Between Limón and New Orleans and Mobile there is direct communication by steamship lines several times each week. Between Limón

and New York steamers run weekly. There is a regular service between ports of the Central American coast, from Colón to Belize. Sailings to Jamaica, Cuba and England are fortnightly. French and Italian steamers call at Limón once a month. On the Pacific Coast there are three regular lines touching at Puntarenas: the Pacific Mail and the Chilean and British lines. There are (1915) 147 telegraph offices and 1,600 miles of wire and 640 miles of telephone lines. Wireless telegraphy with 300 miles radius is in operation at Limón, and there is a small station at Colorado, at the mouth of the San Juan River.

Army. All male citizens between the ages of 18 and 50 may be called upon to do military service; the standing army, however, and the militia together numbered 36,946 and consisted of 3 brigades, 1 battalion, 3 companies and 135 unclassified soldiers (1917). Supplementing land forces are two government-owned motor launches used principally for revenue purposes.

Bibliography.- Alfaro, R. J., Limites entre Panamá y Costa Rica) (Panama 1913); Anderson, L., El Laudo Loubet: contribucion al Estudio de la cuestión de Límites entre Costa Rica y Panamá) (San José 1911); Crosby, J. T., Latin American Monetary Systems and Exchange Conditions' (New York 1915); 'Financial Conference, Proceedings of the First Pan American (Washington 1915); James, W., The Mulberry Tree (Chapters 13 and 14, London 1913); Pan American Union, 'Costa Rica' (Washington 1914); Périgny, M. de, 'Costa Rica' (in Bulletin de la Société de Geographie Commerciale, Tome xxxii, Paris 1910); Shepherd, W. R., Latin America' (New York 1914); Barrantes, F. M., Elementos de la Historia de Costa Rica' (1892); Palmer, F.,

'Central America and its Problems (New York 1910); Vose, E. N., Costa Rica' (New York 1913).

JOHN HUBERT CORNYN,

Editorial Staff of The Americana. COSTER, kos'těr, or KOSTER, Laurens Janszoon, a reputed Dutch inventor of printing by movable types. By many he is regarded as a predecessor of Gutenberg, by some as a mythical personage. The first account of the invention which has any historical value appeared in 1499 in a book called The Chronicle of Cologne. The author says that printing was invented in that city; he asserts, however, that the art was prefigured by the method used for printing certain schoolbooks or Donatuses in Holland. The next statement of importance in connection with the controversy is that of Hadrianus Junius, in his 'Batavia' (1588) to the effect that about 1460 Laurentius Joannes, surnamed Edituus or Custos (literally sacristan, Coster), who lived in Haarlem, fashioned the bark of a beech-tree into letters, which he impressed upon paper. He then made a number of wooden letters and invented an ink thicker and more viscid than the common sort, and afterward made, by the addition of his letters, explanations for pictures engraved on wood; and eventually printed books. Among these was an edition of the 'Speculum Salutis. He subsequently changed the wooden letters for others of lead, and these again for letters of tin. An assistant, who was a member of the Gutenberg family, stole the types and appliances, going first to Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, and finally sojourning at Mainz, where he published various books. This statement has been scoffed at as an invention or based on mere hearsay; but in recent years the trend of opinion has been in favor of the Dutch claims. There are no specimens extant that can with absolute certainty be ascribed to a printer called Coster. Coster's claim was disproved by Van der Linde, who proved that Coster was a tavern-keeper and was confused with Lauren Janszoon, a wine merchant and town officer. He asserts that Coster's claim to the invention was made by Gerritt Thomoszoon in 1550. Many fragments of books, however, have been discovered, believed to be printed much before the date of Gutenberg's earliest work. These are known as Costernian, and their number is being gradually added to since the attention of librarians has been called to their importance. They are printed in a variety of types of Dutch design. All are without any name, date or place, and nearly all were discovered in the bindings of the 15th century manuscripts or printed books. Consult Van der Linde, 'De Haarlemsche Costerlegende' (1870), translated into English by Hessels as 'The Haarlem Legend of the Invention of Printing) (1871); De Vinne, Invention of Printing) (1876); Hessels, Haarlem the Birthplace of Printing' (1887); Morley, English Writers' (Vol. VI, London 1890); also Wysz, Zentralbatt für Bibliotekswesen) (1888).

COSTMARY, or MINT GERANIUM, a species (Chrysanthemum balsamita) of the genus Chrysanthemum, of the thistle family (Composite). The plant is a native of Italy, whence it was introduced into England in 1568, and cultivated for its fragrant leaves, which

were used in ale and various aromatic drinks; and also as a salad. In America the plant grows wild from Nova Scotia to Ohio, having escaped from gardens. Another common name is alecost or alecoast. The name is popularly supposed to mean "the fragrant plant of the Virgin Mary," but recent authorities incline to derive it from the Latin mare, the sea.

COSTUME ("custom"; and especially usage, habit or appearance in dress, etc.), a term now restricted to external dress and its modes. The history of costume is an exceedingly difficult one to trace in any accurate detail, owing to the difficulty of interpreting the vague and scanty notices on the subject which we can collect from the earlier writers. The most interesting and profitable thing will be to attempt to work out certain general lines of development, leaving minute questions to antiquarians who have made a special study of the subject, as far as anything can be accurately known about it. It must be observed that our earliest indications on the subject come from warm or semi-tropical countries; thus eliminating as far as possible the factor in the development of clothes which originates in the necessity of protection against the weather. Considerations of modesty, which may be regarded as the outgrowth either of specifically Christian or of other highly civilized conditions, according to the point of view, appear only in a rudimentary form. The development in early times is regulated largely by the desire to make the dress tell something of the position or rank of the wearer. Thus the earliest distinction as to the amount of clothing prescribed by custom seems to have been that the wearing of many clothes was a mark of rank, while the lower classes were content with a very scanty covering. This would follow since the nobles had in those days very slight need for active exertion; while practical considerations would dictate the minimizing of the garments which might hamper those whose employments required free movement of the limbs.

The early Egyptians seem to have worn little besides an apron or loin-cloth; under the later dynasty it was extended into a long skirt, which was combined with the jacket that had been sometimes worn to form a complete garment. The women wore the calasiris, a shirt with short sleeves or none at all. Light and frequently transparent materials seem to have been most commonly used. For a headdress, both sexes wore what is known as the sphinx-cap. Here, as elsewhere, however, ordinarily people paid very little attention to dress; kings, priests and other officials were distinguished by elaborate vestures. Under the Ptolemies Greek costume was generally introduced. The Assyrians covered more of the body than the Egyptians and used heavier stuffs-cotton, linen, wool_and possibly silk, introduced from China. They wore a long shirt with short sleeves, and confined at the waist. For the upper classes this was bright-colored and ornamented with heavy fringes. Sandals were worn. The king was distinguished by a purple mantle and a white cylindrical cap. The Persian costume was generally tight-fitting, consisting mainly of a short coat and trousers (which seem to have originated very early in Central Asia), often made of leather. When they conquered the Medes, they adopted very generally the dress of the

latter, which was loose and usually woolen. The leather breeches remained in use among the lower classes.

The Greek costume was characterized by great simplicity and fell into graceful folds. The principal parts of it were an undergarment called the chiton and a sort of cloak known as himation, which, when folded over the shoulders, ultimately originated a separate garment, the diploidion. Men wore the chlamys, a short cloak for the more active occupations to which the peplos of the women partly corresponded. White was the usual (though not, as formerly believed, the exclusive) color of Greek garments; the material was most usually woolen among the Dorians and linen with the Ionians. Silk was introduced rather late from Asia and employed to make the semi-transparent robes for which the island of Cos was famous. Oriental luxury increased as time went on, until in the Byzantine period, while clothes retained much the same shape, costly material and rich ornamentation distinguished them.

The Romans also commonly wore but two garments, and the hardy, vigorous life of their early days tended to keep these simple. They wore a woolen tunic for the house, only one at first, until the increase of luxury brought in the custom of wearing two or three in cold weather. Women also wore an outer robe known as the stola, similar to the Greek chiton. For appearance in public there was for men the toga, a large, loose, white cloak adopted by all citizens for outdoor wear, and a somewhat similar garment called palla for women. While, however, men had a uniform manner of wearing the toga, women draped their robes in many graceful shapes at will. Shorter, more practical overgarments, such as the lacerna and the sagum or soldier's cloak, were worn by those engaged in more active occupations. The torque, or cord of gold fastened around the neck, was a fashion introduced from Gaul after the conquest.

The history of fashion in the Christian era may be divided into four periods:

First Period.- In the first, down to 486, the Gallic, Roman and Byzantine elements were combining to form a new costume. In the second, 486 to 1300, this underwent many changes. The nobles vied with each other in introducing new fashions, though the middle class were far slower in adopting innovations, and the peasantry kept the traditional form almost unaltered down to the time of the Crusades. The third is the Renaissance period of transition, leading down to the fourth or modern era.

With the Roman conquest of Gaul came the introduction among the conquerors of the bracce or breeches of the Gauls, first adopted for campaign wear by the Roman soldiers. As the empire went toward its end, extravagance in dress was unbounded among the wealthier classes.. The women wore a sleeveless outside tunic confined at the waist by beautiful bands and on the shoulders by jeweled clasps. They delighted in wearing tunics of bright colors held in such a way that at least some portion of each tunic was revealed and brought into contrast with the others. A bright transparent veil sparkling with green and silver spangles fell from the head and a short mantle hung from the shoulders. A sort of cornet or strophium fastened the veil to the head, and jeweled garters bound at the knee drawers of fine linen.

Sumptuary laws were passed relating to the style of shoe to be worn by each class; but similar laws relating to the variety of jewels had little effect, since the general love for ornaments was too strong to be regulated.

Second Period.— During the Merovingian era (486-751) in France no important modification of the general scheme of clothing came in. The ruder element introduced by the rough Franks gradually softened beneath the enervating, refining influence of Roman fashions. The Frankish women who had been content with their simple costume of a black robe, a tightfitting mantle and a cap were transformed to Merovingian ladies delighting in gay, trailing tunics of delicate tissues exquisitely embroidered. Their arms were still bare according to the ancient Teutonic fashion. Their hair fell in long braids and was ornamented with fillets and flowing veils. As France acquired unity, the influence of both Roman and barbaric invasion visibly faded away. From the ancient shapeless tunic developed the gown, fitting closely to the waist and hips and having the skirt full and flowing. This was the general principle of form from the accession of the Capet dynasty (987) down to the Renaissance.

Men's dress underwent little change down to the 12th century. The costume of the Frankish men of Charlemagne's time may be described as the approximate model. It consisted of two tunics, the outer one of wool or silk varying in length from the hips to the knees, according to the prevailing style. These were covered by a blue mantle, fastened on the right side with a clasp, and often highly ornamented and trimmed with beautiful furs and gold fringes. Head coverings of diverse and increasingly extravagant styles were among the first distinctive modifications; and these were sometimes combined (as also in the development of academic costume) with a hood or cape falling over the shoulders.

Each century saw its own modification of these general types. It was a growing fashion in the 9th century for women's outer robes to stop at the knee and show a full sweep of the contrasting tunic beneath. In the 10th and 11th centuries the robe was belted by a rich girdle both above and below the waist. In the 11th century, too, the long train, in vain anathematized by the Church, became extremely popular. Sleeves reached the limit of absurdity in the dress of both sexes. At various periods the leg-of-mutton sleeve was worn, and in the beginning of the 15th century the outer sleeve widened at the wrist until it swept the ground. Commercial relations with the East were improved through the Crusades, and new varieties of costly fabrics were introduced. The splendor displayed in armor and military appointments affected the customs of the women. Ladies of noble birth emblazoned their close-fitting gowns and surcoats. Even the dress of the middle classes, many of whom were dependents of the nobles and wore livery colors and armorial badges, acquired a heraldic character. The helmets, decked with scarfs and mantlings, suggested many grotesque varieties of feminine headgear, both in the 14th and 15th centuries. As the mantles of the knights but partly concealed their armor, so a surcoat worn by ladies only half concealed the beautiful decorated gown beneath. This surcoat was a jacket of

varying shape; at one period it was only a coat without sleeves or sides; later a loose, flowing skirt was added to it, which in the 16th century stopped at the knee. The hip-girdle, of exquisite workmanship, which showed through the openings of the surcoat, was a counterpart of the military belt worn by the knights.

The end of the 14th century was marked by the excess to which the more fanciful devices of the period were carried. Robes were more fantastically cut along the edges, and decked with trailing ribbons, accompanied by a trailing tail to the hood. The pointed toes of shoes were often two or three times the length of the foot. The odd parti-colored gowns of the women blazed with heraldic impalements and quarterings. During the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries there was great confusion about those garments which we know as stockings and trousers. One garment sometimes reaches the waist, ever. covering the feet. At others there were two articles, the nether stocks (Fr. bas de chausses) came to the thigh or knee and were continued by the trunk-hose or upper hose (Fr. haut de chausses). About 1600 the word breeches came into use to indicate the trunk-hose, and the term hose was confined to stockings.

Third Period.- This epoch was the transition from the mediæval to the modern style of dress. Speaking generally, up to the 14th century, long dress prevailed, loose and flowing, and offering a welcome contrast to the tightfitting armor of the knight. About 1350 the costume of the men began to change, with the introduction of the doublet, a short jacket padded at the shoulders, plaited a few inches below the waist and fastened with a belt. The nether stocks, now entirely exposed to view, were attached to the trunk-hose. Long, loose robes with immense drooping sleeves were indeed worn throughout the 15th century, but only by professional men or nobles on occasions of state. In women's dress the tendency appeared to cut the figure into sections instead of keeping to the girded gown. A bodice reached to the hips. The dress was somewhat shortened, and thus a step was taken toward the short hooped petticoat. During the Renaissance Period full forms became more and more popular, and petticoats and skirts spread into the form of a bell, which year by year increased in circumference.

Fourth Period.- A more distinct transition between ancient and modern dress took place in the 16th century. Men wore for show a short cloak which hung from the shoulders. The doublet was made with rather tightly fitting sleeves; beneath it was a sleeveless jerkin fitting the body and, like the modern waistcoat, so cut as to allow the beautifully embroidered shirt to be seen. The short skirt of the doublet was gored to fit the bulging trunk-hose padded with hair, while the lower hose were plain and tight, so that the figure looked broad and full above and narrow below. In this century began the wearing of the top of the nether garments loose, or slashed, with pieces of different colors set in. The arms and shoulders of the doublet or jacket were similarly trimmed. Boots were worn loose, with the upper part falling down. Ruffs, or ruffled collars, and velvet bonnets with feathers came into use.

In England the Tudor Period was characterized by great extravagance. The chronicler Hall describes several of Henry VIII's superb

dresses, among them a "frocke" or coat of velvet embroidered all over with gold, the sleeves and breast cut and lined with cloth of gold and tied together "with great buttons of diamonds, rubies and Orient pearls." The cloaks and mantles were of corresponding magnificence. The shirts were pinched or plaited and embroidered with gold, silver or silk. The shoes and buskins were of the German fashion, very broad at the toe, and of velvet and satin, slashed and puffed. A plain russet coat and a loose kind of kersey breeches, with stockings of the same piece, constituted the ordinary dress of middle-class men. The London apprentices wore blue cloaks in summer and gowns of the same color in winter, as badges of servitude; for this was a period of domestic distinctions, relics of feudalism. The women wore long woolen gowns, worsted kirtles (hereafter called petticoats) and white caps and aprons. About this time white underlinen came into general

wear.

In Elizabeth's time the men's huge trunkhose, "stuffed with hair like woolsacks," were made of silk, velvet, satin or damask. The doublets were very costly, quilted and stuffed, "slashed, fagged, pinched, and laced." The cloaks were of Spanish, French or Dutch cuts; of cloth, silk, velvet or taffeta; of all colors; trimmed with gold, silver, silk-lace and glass bugles; equally superb inside and out. Hats now began to supersede the bonnets of the former era.

They were for the most part made of felted wool, dyed. Those of beaver were exceedingly expensive.

The most conspicuous features of women's dress in the reign of Elizabeth were the farthingale and the ruff. The former consisted of an extravagant expansion of the lower garments by means of cane or whalebone. It was the predecessor of the hoop, which in its turn was succeeded by the crinoline. The widely extended ruff of fine linen, like a huge frill, is familiar from the pictures of Elizabeth and Mary of Scotland. The extravagance of the ruff reached such a point that it was anathematized from the pulpit, together with the extremely low cutting of the bodice; and the fancies of women's costume were denounced in a sermon preached before James I, at Whitehall, as "her French, her Spanish, and her foolish fashions."

England was slower than France, but ahead of Spain, in abandoning the farthingale and the. ruff. In the beginning of the reign of Charles I dress was little changed; the ruff, of thinner make, stood farther away from the throat and looked like a framework of gauze, but the skirts were not so wide. In the middle of the 17th century there came a revolution against the entire system of padding, whalebone, starch and wire, and for about 50 years the upper classes followed the canons of beauty and grace. Instead of the ruff, the Van Dyck collar, made of rich point-lace, was worn hanging down on the shoulder and held by a cord and tassel at the neck. Long breeches, fringed and pointed, met the ruffled tops of the boots; an embroidered sword-belt, worn over the right shoulder, held a Spanish rapier. In the flapping beaver hat hung a plume of feathers fastened by a jewel. Ladies' dresses were still made with skirt and bodice, the bodice defining but not cramping

the figure, and the skirt hanging full and gracefully.

During the latter half of the 17th century, France, more than ever, gave the law to Europe in dress, and the typical style of the period is known as that of Louis XIV-although, for accuracy, a distinction must be made between the gay and brilliant and the sombre parts of his reign, in the latter of which a tendency toward sober plainness not unlike that of the English Puritans was felt. The result of long struggles with inconveniences of dress was a nearer approach to the modern masculine dress of three pieces, coat, waistcoat and trousers. The richly laced and embroidered doublet was long and loose, and had large puffed-out sleeves reaching a little below the elbow. The rest of the arm was covered by the full sleeves of the shirt. The long, loose, sleeveless waistcoat showed beneath the doublet, and the wide, ruffled breeches were fastened at the knees with bunches of ribbon. The doublet had buttons and buttonholes for its entire length, thus becoming a coat. Instead of the lace collar the long, square-ended cravat was worn. In the early part of the 18th century this dress became more exact in shape and sober in tone. The doublet, now a coat, fitted the body. The absurd wide "petticoat breeches" were exchanged for close-fitting garments tied below the knee. The broad-brimmed hats were turned up on two sides, later on three, and edged with feathers or ribbons. Wigs, which had been some time in use, were worn still longer than before, hanging down in front or flowing upon the shoulder. The coats of the 18th century were of velvet, silk, satin or broadcloth and of fanciful colors. Hogarth's favorite color was sky-blue, Reynolds' deep crimson, and Goldsmith rejoiced in plumcolor. Meanwhile women's dress had also become more stiff and formal. Long bodices were tightly laced over very stiff corsets; overdresses were bunched up in the neck and on the hips; and the hoop-skirt, as outrageous as the farthingale of the 16th century, was generally worn. About the middle of the century the sacque came into style — a loose gown, resembling the mantle of antiquity, which was looped over the hoop-skirt and furbelows or left trailing behind. Heavy towering headdresses replaced the simple ringlets of the previous century. Small muffs, flowing veils and fans were important accessories. Muffs were carried for a time by men.

The formalities of the 18th century received a severe blow from the general tendency of the French Revolution toward simplicity. In the 10 years from 1790 to 1800 a more complete change was effected in dress by the spontaneous action of the people than had taken place in any previous period in the century. The change began in France, partly to mark contempt for old court usages, and partly in imitation of certain classes in England, whose costume the French mistook for that of the nation generally. It consisted of a round hat, a short coat, a light waistcoat and pantaloons reaching to the ankles and fastened by buttons. A handerchief was tied loosely around the neck, with the ends long and hanging down, and showing the shirt collar above. The short hair à la Titus was unpowdered, and the shoes were tied with strings in place of the buckles which had before been universal. This comparatively simple form of dress found many admirers in England and soon

The

became common among the young men. abandonment of hair-powder followed the imposition of a tax on its use, and with the giving up of wigs and powder came the fall of the cocked hat. Pantaloons which fitted closely to the legs remained in general use until about 1814, when the wearing of looser trousers, already introduced into the army, became fashionable, though many elderly persons still held to knee-breeches against all innovations. The general simplifying of dress subsequent to 1815 was not allowed to pass without a last effort to retain the elaborate fashions of the preceding period. The macaroni of the 18th century was now succeeded by the dandy, who prided himself on his starched collars, his trouser-straps, and the flashy bunch of seals which dangled from his watch-chain. The period covered by the Regency in England was indeed the heyday of this kind of dandyism; but even later it characterized not a few leading public personages.

The end of the 18th century witnessed a signal change in the style of women's dress. The gown no longer consisted of two dresses, an under and an outer one. The formal styles which had prevailed throughout the century and brought into use stiff materials such as solid damasks, velvets, satins and silks, were replaced by the fashion of the short-waisted clinging gown made of muslin and soft silk. This "Empire" mode characterized the dress of the first quarter of the 19th century. Large, loose, warm coats and cloaks were used for outdoor wear. Elaborate hats, turbans and caps were worn on all occasions. In the twenties there was another revolution. Skirts were shortened and trimmed with flowers, puffs and ruchings; sleeves became fuller, and the waist came nearer its natural position. Then the sleeves began to widen and stiffen, and the hats grew larger and more cumbrous. From these wide skirts the crinoline was evolved in 1854. In the seventies the skirt became narrower again, worn with a polonaise of a different color. Meanwhile the size and shape of the sleeve was not constant for more than a year.

But it would be both impossible and profitless to follow the minute variations of changing fashion. To return to general principles, it is safe to say that neutrality is becoming more and more the basis of costume, at least for men. Extravagance in dress, especially among the Anglo-Saxon nations, has become a note of bad taste; and man's dress, which was formerly characterized by gorgeous display, is little more than a uniform which, with certain variations prescribed by etiquette, adapts itself to different functions and amusements. As a result of the general modern abandonment of formality, and the opening of new employments for women, together with their invasion of the realm of athletic sports, the simplicity which characterizes the masculine dress has come to exist more and more also in the feminine. Fashion is forced nowadays to accommodate itself, to some extent at least, to health and convenience; and only the artist and the antiquarian will be found to regret that the picturesque costumes of bygone days are to be seen only among the peasantry of distant and isolated lands.

Bibliography.- Racinet, 'Le costume historique (1888) is the best general work.

Ferrario, Il costume antico e moderno) (22 vols., Milan 1815-34) is also valuable. For the pre-Christian period, consult especially Layard, Monuments of Nineveh' (1850); Hope, 'Costume of the Ancients (1841); Evans, Chapters on Greek Dress' (1893). For later developments, Hefner-Alteneck, 'Trachten, Kunstwerke, und Geräthschaften vom frühen Mittelalter bis Ende des 18ten Jahrhunderts) (187989); Jacquemin, 'Iconographie méthodique du costume du IVe au XIXe siècle' (1876); Lacroix, Manners, Customs and Dress of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and the Eighteenth Century, Its Institutions, Customs, Costumes (Eng. trans. 1877, 1887); Chevignard and Duplessis, Costumes historiques des XVIe, XVIIe, et XVIIIe siècles (1867); Planché, Cyclopædia of Costume) (1876-79) and History of British Costume' (1874); Fairholt, Costume in England' (1885); Earle, Costume of Colonial Times' (1895); (Two Centuries of Costume in America (2 vols., New York 1904); Pauquet, Modes et costumes historiques (1862-64); Rosenberg, 'Geschichte des Kostüms (Berlin 1905); Von Heyden, 'Die Tracht der Kulturvölker Europas bis zum Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts' (1889); Quincke, 'Handbuch der Kostüme' (1896).

COSTUME, Academic.- The use of caps, gowns and hoods in the United States has been continuous since Colonial times. Columbia College continued the custom of Kings College in the city of New York which had transplanted to American soil many of the regulations of Oxford and Cambridge. The code, however, was modified and lost much of the high color so noticeable in Great Britain. The University of Pennsylvania, New York University, Trinity College (Hartford, Conn.), Saint John's (Annapolis, Md.), University of the South (Sewanee, Tenn.), and Hobart also had codes in force before 1880. There was, however, no system discernible and few persons knew the distinguishing marks of the costumes for the various degrees. Few hoods were in use and some of them were worn by clergymen and by the congregations were supposed to be articles of ecclesiastical rather than academic costume. In fact, there is an intimate connection between the two as the medieval universities were maintained by clerics and the forms of caps, gowns and hoods were merely the mediæval forms of clothing, retained and made regulation for the clergy when the lay community changed to more modern dress. Caps were a necessity in the cold churches; copes and capes with hoods attached were needed for warmth, and the hood was selected by the university men as the article to be made distinctive for the various degrees by color, trimming and lining. As the British universities passed from the control of the ecclesiastics, the costumes took on brighter colors, the dress or convocation robes for the doctors being of scarlet cloth, about the same color as the hunting coats and the old army uniforms.

The use of scarlet for dress use in doctors' gowns and for doctors' hoods is about the only tendency toward uniformity to be found in the British usage, all the codes of the British, Irish and Colonial universities being purely empirical. The codes of Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh and McGill (Montreal) are given herewith.