science at summer schools, teachers institutes, and by correspondence, and in supervising and directing work in these subjects in high schools.

Expenditure is not authorized for instruction in general course in pedagogy, psychology, history of education, and methods of teaching.

The several land-grant institutions are left largely independent not only in respect to the curricula offered, but also in respect to the local disposition of these funds. Seven-tenths of 1 per cent of the Morrill-Nelson appropriation in 1908, and nine-tenths of 1 per cent in 1928 was reported by 52 land-grant institutions as having been utilized for teacher preparation in agriculture and mechanic arts. Only four States-Georgia, Iowa, New York, and Utah— reported in 1928 the utilization of any of this fund for teacher training. Thus, the permission granted to use part of the Nelson appropriation for the express purpose of training teachers has been taken advantage of to a negligible extent only.

The responsibility, therefore, for the specific training of teachers was largely discharged by the States without direct Federal help until 1917, when funds for this purpose were provided by the SmithHughes Vocational Education Act. The Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act provides not only for Federal cooperation with the States in promotion of vocational education in agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries, but also for cooperation with the States in the preparation of teachers of such vocational subjects. By far the greatest advancement in the history of vocational teacher training has come since the date of passage of this act of Congress. The growth of vocational teacher training has also influenced noticeably the development of training for teachers in the arts and sciences and in related fields, especially in the separated land-grant colleges.

Five hundred thousand dollars was made available in 1917 to the States from Federal funds for the training of teachers of agriculture, home economics, and industrial education (trades and industries). This amount was increased during successive years until $1,000,000 became available for this purpose in 1921 and thereafter. Each State received a minimum allotment of $10,000 after 1923. In 1928 and annually until 1930, the total allotments for all the States and the Territory of Hawaii amounts to $1,096,766. During the fiscal year 1927-28 approximately 95 per cent of the allotments available were used by the States. Since 1921, the amount used has annually exceeded 91 per cent of the amount available. The law provides that a minimum of 20 per cent of the funds must be reserved for each of the three phases of vocational teacher training: Agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries; but that no more than 60 per cent should be expended on the training of teachers for any one of these types of work. The distribution made by the State boards has been fairly evenly divided among the three phases of teacher training. At the present time State and local financial support for teacher training exceeds in amount the total of all Federal subsidies for this purpose.

An act was passed by Congress February 4, 1929 (George-Reed bill) to provide for the further development of vocational education in the several States and Territories. Appropriations, additional to those of the Smith-Hughes Act,

3 Annual Report of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 1929.

were made of $500,000 in 1930, and each year thereafter for four years, a sum exceeding by $500,000 the sum appropriated for each preceding year. Half the sum is provided for teachers, supervisors, and directors of agriculture; and half for such workers in home economics. The general conditions for the administration and expenditure of the appropriations are in accordance with the original provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act. One hundred thousand dollars annually was appropriated to the Federal Board for Vocational Education for administration and related activities involved in carrying out the provision of the act of February 5, 1929. Demands for vocational teachers may be expected to increase as a result of this subsidy.

The number of teachers prepared should be determined almost entirely by the needs of the public schools for trained teachers. It was about 1905 or 1906, more than 40 years after the establishment of the land-grant institutions, before the high schools enrolled as many as 10 per cent of the total population of high-school age. By 1916, 20 per cent of the total population of high-school age was enrolled; by 1921, 30 per cent; and in 1928, approximately 50 per cent. The most rapid growth was experienced between 1915 and 1925. While moderate growth in actual numbers enrolled continues at the present time, the percentage rate of increase has slackened during the last few years.

The increase in the number of high-school teaching positions has corresponded roughly to the increase in the number of pupil enrollments, since the number of students per teacher has not varied much during the past 40 years; at present there is, on an average, 23 students per teacher in the high schools. The increase in the number of teachers in public high schools is shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2.—Increase since 1890 in the number of teachers in public high schools

1 Includes those not reported by sex.

? Does not include elementary grades in junior high school.

Present tendencies indicate that eventually a period of stabilization is to be expected in the number of high-school positions to be filled. While there is no immediate indication that the land-grant colleges should drastically curtail their general program of teacher preparation, there is reason to believe that they should devote considerable attention to significant current tendencies. For instance, special needs of the high schools that have arisen during the present century demand constant redirection of subject-matter emphasis. One indication of this need is shown by the increase in the number

of subjects taught in high school. In 1890, nine subjects and a score or more of different courses constituted most of the highschool curriculum. Now enrollments are reported in hundreds of different courses. It is evident that, unless the institutions are in the closest possible touch with developments among the secondary schools, their teacher-training departments may turn out numerous graduates not fitted for the work that they must acually teach in the high schools.

Increase in Enrollments in Teacher Training

The increase since 1921 in recorded enrollments in general education and in vocational education schools, departments or major courses of the land-grant institutions is shown in Table 3. These figures, of course, do not include by any means all students enrolled in land-grant institutions who are preparing to teach, but only those actually enrolled in the teacher-training units or groups indicated. It will be noted that the total enrollment in all education units has increased six times over, whereas the total resident undergraduate enrollments in all courses have increased less than two-fifths. While changes in the methods of student accounting undoubtedly are responsible for some of the increases shown, the tendency is clearly toward definite institutional recognition of the development of teacher training as a distinct function.

TABLE 3.-Enrollments in general and in vocational education schools, departments, or major courses since 1921, in relation to total resident undergraduate enrollment of land-grant institutions1

1 Data from annual reports of land-grant colleges to the Office of Education.

In Table 4 is shown the number of first degrees granted since 1921 to students in general education and in vocational education. The institutions are unable to state accurately the number of students not registered in the major divisions of education who nevertheless are in training for the purpose of becoming teachers. An

estimate made on the basis of all available information is that for the country as a whole approximately one-third of the trainees graduated in 1928 were not registered in the school, college, or divisions of education, and hence were usually reported as enrolled in arts and science, agriculture, and similar subject-matter divisions of the institution. This proportion is larger for previous years. The total number of prospective teachers graduated with first de grees in 1928 is reported to be 3,082. Adding to this figure an esti mated number of 1,541 prepared for teaching but not registered in education, the total of 4,623 is obtained for graduates with the first degree who were prepared for teaching in 1927-28.

TABLE 4.-Number of first degrees granted students in general education and in vocational education 1921–1928 in all land-grant institutions

Further expansion and development of existing activities and redirection of existing teacher-training programs seem inevitable. Social, political, and economic changes are rapid and educators are striving to keep pace. To meet current problems, educational activities are advancing with unprecedented rapidity. Definite and certain promise exists for the education in the future of even greater number of the citizenry of our country for vocational effectiveness and for the worthy pursuits of leisure. It is not impossible that in America our greatest contributions to modern civilization may consist in the discovery of the ways and means for securing a happy concordance of vocational and of liberal education.

Chapter III. Objectives

The objectives of the teacher-training programs as expressed in the catalogues of the institutions are only occasionally alike. The most commonly mentioned objective is the professional preparation of teachers. A number of similar statements so broad as to be almost meaningless are given. The training of teachers for specific positions is mentioned or implied in the statements of a few institutions. Not infrequently such objectives as "a broad and liberal education" are stated. The necessity for meeting State certification requirements is mentioned by several institutions. In Table 5 are shown the reports of the land-grant institutions relative to the types of positions for which they definitely offer or attempt to offer training. TABLE 5.-Specific objectives of undergraduate teacher-training activities in respect to positions for which training is offered

Trade and industrial education; industrial arts; manual train