MANUAL ACTS, in ecclesiastical and Church hitsory, acts performed by the hands of the celebrant in the mass, chiefly the fraction of the host, and making the sign of the Cross over it before consecration. Both were objected to at the Reformation.

MANUAL ALPHABET, the deaf and dumb alphabet; the letters made by deaf and dumb persons with their fingers.

MANUAL BLOCKING. See BLOCK SIGNAL SYSTEM.

MANUAL TRAINING. As an educational term, manual training includes all handwork used as a means in general education. It differs from trade education through the apprenticeship system in that it emphasizes the educational element rather than the commercial or industrial element. This "hand-training," however, differs from education in its broader meaning, in that it emphasizes manual skill, and makes such by-products as judgment, accuracy, habits of observation, language, etc., more or less important incidents in the results to be attained. The more recent development of vocational training has tended to cast doubt upon the validity of manual training as a part of eduIcation, while the advocates of the traditional features of education-literature, history, mathematics, science, philosophy,- have never admitted it to a place in their educational scheme. The term has therefore become restricted to those forms of handwork which are used as agencies in general education as distinct from vocational, trade and industrial education. The manual training advocates continue to hold that habits of accuracy, judgment and observation and sincerity, formed through manual activities, will contribute to these same mental habits as permanent life characteristics. In this they return under peculiar circumstances to the doctrine of formal discipline, approaching the matter in reverse order from the early devotees to this doctrine. Nevertheless it is on this theory that manual training is now holding its place in American public education. When it surrenders this position it must become prevocational or vocational training.

History of Manual Training.- Finland holds the honor of the earliest use of handwork as an agency in education. Between 1858 and 1866 a plan was developed for teaching handwork in the primary schools, and for training handwork teachers for the public schools.

Sweden established handwork as a part of its educational system in 1872. This included carpentry, wood-turning, wood-carving, coopers' work, book-binding, etc., activities selected from the Hus Slöjd occupations from which we have the well-known "Sloyd Work." Sweden was concerned with the physical health of its people as well as the passing of the old system of house industries. It was hoped that this manual work would invigorate the physical and moral health of the people who lived under artificial city conditions; and that industry would be stimulated by a wide diffusion of manual skill. The Swedish nation has now made handwork an integral part of its public school program and has thus laid a broad and sure foundation for the excellent technical and trade schools above.

France adopted handwork in 1873 in the École Salicis, and in 1882 made such work compulsory in all elementary schools. From its

very beginning drawing has been emphasized and mathematics has been a closely related subject. Because of this academic work the French have drawn the regular teacher into this handwork movement side by side with a trade teacher who gives the practical work. This relationship between the academic teacher and the trade-teacher has been adopted by other countries and has apparently proved its usefulness.

England opened its first handwork classes in 1886 and to-day all the large centres of population require such work in their schools. The government awards special financial grants to municipalities who give manual training to boys and girls of 11 years and older.

Germany has long emphasized manual instruction for the artisan classes in her population but her emphasis has been on trade or vocational features. Skill of hand has been the purpose, rather than such moral qualities as were sought, for example, by the Swedish system. As a consequence Germany developed trade and occupation schools, rather than manual training courses in the "real-schulen." The Gymnasia of course give no training in handwork. In fact, there has been no general scheme adopted by any considerable portion of Germany. This is probably due to the fact that trade and occupational training were efficiently carried on. Recently, since 1887, some schools have adopted typical manual training courses, and the Manual Training Seminary at Leipzig is the principal source of manual training teachers within the Empire.

Manual training in the United States has depended on private and local initiative. There had been no national movement prior to 1917. The Ethical Culture Society of New York City made the first step by opening handwork classes for small children in 1878 in connection with its workingmen's school. This was followed in 1880 by Washington University, Saint Louis, Mo., under the direction of Calvin A. Woodward. This experiment consisted of a fully equipped manual training high school with a variety of shopwork in wood and metal, mechanical drawing, and in such appropriate academic work as science and mathematics. It was a pioneer school and its success was noticed by many of the large American cities. By 1900 a majority of American municipalities had adopted some form of manual training. Work for girls as well as boys was included in the program. The courses for girls included sewing, dressmaking, millinery, burnt wood, leather and art jewelry; for boys it included joinery, wood-turning, pattern-making, forging, chine-shop, foundry, sheet-metal, printing, electric wiring, etc. In the elementary school handwork has likewise found a large place on the program, beginning in the kindergarten and continuing through the elementary grades. The activities include paper folding and paper cutting, basketry, clay-modeling, wood-carving, raffia work, etc. Correlation with drawing is more and more the rule. The best practice in the public schools now relates drawing to the experiences of the child. Design is the basis of the work and the design of the drawingclass frequently becomes the project of the handwork-class in the upper grades. Manual training in the American high school early developed into a distinctive institution. Its handwork or shop-work program is only remotely

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MANUCODIA

related to industry. The projects are often impractical because they are chosen, not because of their utility or industrial significance but because they illustrate fundamental processes of industry. Type constructions are used as analytical studies of various manufacturing processes. A complete product is not sought nor are such elements as time, commercial value and shop atmosphere made a part of the instruction. The purpose of this typical Manual Training High School is vaguely educational, remotely industrial. As such, it fails to meet the needs of many industrial communities.

The Vocational Motive.-A change of sentiment became apparent immediately after the Saint Louis Exposition of 1904. Educators who had investigated the subject in Europe and America, who saw the display of the nations' handwork, seemed to feel the need of training that related more closely to life motives. Manufacturers demanded industrial efficiency and appeared to have no confidence in the vague results of the typical Manual Training High School which was a traditional school with shop facilities. A demand arose for "shops with schools attached" or with school facilities. Manual training was soon modified so as to add the vocational appeal to boys and girls of 14 years of age and upward. The handwork of the seventh and eighth grades has come to be known as "prevocational" in the sense that the processes of many vocations are taught with the purpose of giving the child an opportunity to choose wisely with the aid of vocational advisers among teachers, parents and industrial or vocational experts. The logical step to follow this "prevocational" work is the trade school so that the advance of the vocational and industrial motives makes the old manual training ideal recede.

Industrial Education and Manual Training. Industrial education is a more comprehensive term than manual training. It includes all that was at first expected from manual training as a stimulus to efficient workmanship; all that vocational and "prevocational training propose; all that trade education seeks to secure. The emphasis is now on training and the specialized education pertaining to special industries, while the vague educational results of manual training which it was claimed would come by transfer of faculties, drop below the horizon.

The great demand for skilled workmen in the army and navy has led to the adoption of a national program of industrial education under the direction of the War Department. Colleges and technical schools in all parts of the country are teaching trades indispensable in warfare, using the equipment of former manual training and industrial schools. Thus is impressed on men's minds the utility of industrial skill in sharp contrast with the relative inutility for the work in hand of much of the traditional education, including the typical manual training schools. The organization of industrial education on a national basis is thus assured. It supersedes manual training and takes its place side by side with technical education. See EDUCATION, INDUSTRIAL; EDUCATION, TECHNICAL; VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.

A. R. BRUBACHER,

President, State College for Teachers, Albany, N. Y.

VOL. 18-16

MANUCODIA, mặn-i-co-di-a, in ornithology, a group of birds either belonging or closely allied to the Paradiseida, and peculiar to the Papuan sub-region. The plumage is glossy steel-blue; the outer and middle toes are united for some distance, and there is an extraordinary convolution of the trachea in the males, to which the loud and clear voice of the birds is owing. Mr. Sharpe divides the Manucodia into two genera: Phonygama and Manucodia proper, of which four species are admittedManucodia chalybeata (chalybea), from the northwest, and M. comriei, from the southwest, of New Guinea; M. atra, widely distributed over the Papuan sub-region, and M. jobiensis, peculiar to the island whence it derives its specific name.

MANUEL I, Camnenus, man'u-ěl komne'nus, a Byzantine emperor: b. about 1120; succeeded his father, Joannes II, in 1143, died in 1180. The valor which he had displayed against the Turks induced his father to bequeath the crown to him rather than to his elder brother Isaac, who was immediately imprisoned by Axuch, the minister of the deceased emperor. Returning from his campaign in Cilicia, Manuel was received with enthusiasm at Constantinople, but was at once involved in wars both in the East and the West, which lasted with brief intermissions through his reign. In 1144 he subjected Raymond, the rebellious Latin prince of Antioch. In 1145 he defeated the sultan of Iconium in successive pitched battles. In 1147 he promised his aid to the new crusade headed by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, and though he allowed them a passage through his dominions he gave secret information to the Turks.

In 1148 he began the most important war of his reign with Roger, the Norman king of Sicily, who had taken Corfu and prepared to invade Greece. He formed an alliance with the Venetians, who within a year joined him before the fortress of Corfu, which was surrendered after an obstinate siege. He was prevented from invading Sicily by hostilities of the Serbians and Hungarians, instigated by Roger, the former of whom were vanquished in two campaigns, but the latter protracted the war till 1152. In that year he suffered a reverse from the Turks in Cilicia, but his general, John Ducas, gained so great successes in southern Italy that Manuel conceived the project of reuniting the eastern and western empires.

The defeat of Alexis, the successor of John Ducas, by William, the successor of Roger, soon followed; the Sicilian admiral Maius routed the Greek fleet off Negropont, and advanced toward Constantinople; and Manuel therefore accepted an honorable peace in 1155. Those Greek prisoners who were silk-weavers were retained in Italy, and gave origin to the flourishing Italian silk manufactures. In the following years he waged successful wars with Raymond, Prince of Antioch, and Az-ed-din, the Turkish sultan. A new war soon broke out with Gejza, king of Hungary, which was terminated by a disastrous defeat of the Hungarians near the present Semlin. In 1176 he experienced a terrible defeat from Az-ed-din in the mountains of Pisidia, and was obliged to sign a disadvantageous peace. By breaking the treaty and renewing the war he

obtained honorable terms. This broke his health and he died of a slow fever.

MANUEL II, Palæologus, pā-lē-ōl'ō-gus, a Byzantine emperor, born in 1350, succeeded his father, Joannes V, in 1391, died in 1425. At the death of his father he fled from the court of the sultan Bajazet, with whom he had been left as a hostage. The consequence was a war with Bajazet, in which Manuel was supported by an army of Hungarians, Germans and French. The allies, under the command of Sigismund, king of Hungary and afterward emperor of Germany, were defeated at Nicopolis in 1396, with the loss of 10,000 men. Constantinople was besieged, and its fall seemed impending, when the conquests of Tamerlane diverted the arms of the sultan. Manuel visited Italy, France and Germany, vainly seeking assistance from the Western princes. In the conflict between the Tartars and the Turks, he acted with diplomatic skill, and secured peace to his empire. He sent ambassadors to the Council of Constance with instructions to urge a union of the Latin and Greek churches; but his real object was only to obtain aid from the kingdoms of the West, and to alarm the Turks by the negotiations with those kingdoms.

MANUEL II, ex-king of Portugal, younger son of Carlos I: b. Lisbon, 15 Nov. 1889. He was known as the Duke of Beja and scandalous reports of his life in Paris were circulated before it was thought he would succeed to the throne. Consequently his accession on the asassination of his father and the Crown Prince on 1 Feb. 1908 was not the occasion of great popular rejoicing. He took the oath as king on 6 May 1908. His private life continued to alienate the affection of the people and on 5 Oct. 1910 the Republicans overturned his throne and proclaimed a republic. Manuel fled to England where he resided at Twickenham with his uncle, the Duke of Orleans. From there in 1911 he directed uprisings in Portugal with the object of abolishing the republic. These proved unsuccessful as did others in succeeding years and the entrance of Portugal into the war of 1914-18 as a member of the Entente appeared to put an end definitely to Royalist uprisings in that country despite huge sums spent by the Germans in propaganda to that end. Manuel married Princess Augustine Victoria of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1913; the union proved uphappy and a separation resulted.

MANUEL, Don Juan, Spanish prince and author: b. Escalona, Spain, 5 May 1282; d. 1349. He was a nephew of Alfonso X, and cousin of Sancho IV. His public life was a restless and turbulent one, but his chief claim to remembrance comes from the fact that he was one of the first and one of the best of Spanish prose writers. He wrote in a style of singular simplicity and charm, and few Spanish authors have succeeded so well in giving to their words the calmness, the weight, the richness which come only from long experience and reflection. His principal work that remains is 'Libro de Patronio,' more commonly known as 'El Conde Lucanor,' which has been translated into the French and German languages.

MANUFACTURERS, National Association of, an American association organized in Cincinnati in 1895. It had three primary ob

jects increasing the export trade; influencing State and national legislation; and arbitrating labor disputes. The Association maintains a general office in New York City and issues numerous confidential reports and bulletins for the exclusive use of its members. The Association is opposed to all boycotts and blacklists, but is not opposed to labor organizations, though it has resisted many of their rulings, and is popularly considered as antagonistic, because of the vigor with which it pushed the now famous suit against the American Federation of Labor, for its boycott of the Bucks Stove and Range Company. This was a long-fought test case, and the manufacturers won, stopping all official boycotting. Since 1913 the Association has directed its attention largely against the Independent Workers of the World, generally with success. The Manufacturers' Association has given considerable effort to promoting constructive legislation to aid manufacturers, and has made some gains in patent law, but signally failed in securing better terms from the PostOffice Department. It publishes American Industries (monthly), which has 35,000 circulation, and is edited by F. W. Keough; and The American Trade Index (monthly).

MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED STATES. See UNITED STATES, COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF.

MANUL, mä'nul, the common wildcat of Siberia and Tibet. It is smaller than the European wildcat, stockily built, has a moderately long tail and a coat of long hair. The general color is yellowish white, with a blackish mark on the chest and upper part of the fore legs, and some dark lines across the haunches and ringing the tail. Two black lines on the cheeks and a black spot behind the short ear are other distinguishing marks. There is a very curious similitude of appearance between this animal and the pampas cat of Patagonia.

MANUMISSION, in Roman law, the solemn ceremony by which a slave was emancipated. Constantine the Great allowed the Christian masters to emancipate their slaves before the altar on festival days, and especially at Easter, by placing the deed of emancipation on the head of the freedman in the presence of the congregation. See EMANCIPATION; EMANCIPATION IN LATIN AMERICA; EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION.

MANURES AND MANURING. See AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY; FERTILIZERS.

MANUSCRIPTS (Latin, manuscriptus, written by the hand), are literally writing of any kind, whether on paper or any other material, in contradistinction to printed matter. Previous to the introduction of printing all literature was contained in manuscripts. All the existing ancient manuscripts are written on parchment or on paper. The paper is sometimes Egyptian (prepared from the real papyrus shrub), sometimes cotton or silk paper (charta bombycina), which was invented in the East about the year 706 A.D., and used till the introduction of linen paper, and in common with this till the middle of the 14th century; sometimes linen paper, the date of the invention of which, though ascribed to the first half of the 13th century, on the authority of a document of the year 1243, written on such paper, is

nevertheless exceedingly doubtful. The earliest mention of quill pens is in the 7th century. The most common ink is the black, which is very old. The oldest, however, was not mixed with vitriol, like ours, but generally consisted of soot, lamp-black, burned ivory, pulverized charcoal, etc. Red ink of a dazzling beauty is also found in ancient times in manuscripts. With it were written the initial letters, the first lines, and the titles, which were thence called rubrics, and the writer rubricator. More rarely, but still quite frequently, blue ink is found in ancient manuscripts; yet more rarely green and yellow. Gold and silver were also used for writing either whole manuscripts (which, from their costliness, are great rarities), or for adorning the initial letters of books. With respect to external form, manuscripts are divided into rolls (volumina, the most ancient way, in which the troubadours in France wrote their poems at a much later period) and into stitched books or volumes (properly codices). Among the ancients the writers of manuscripts were mainly freedmen or slaves (scribæ librarii). Some of the professional copyists in Rome were women. When Origen undertook the revision of the Old Testament (231 A.D.), Saint Ambrose sent to his assistance a number of deacons and virgins skilful in caligraphy. Subsequently the monks, among them the Benedictines in particular, were bound to this employment by the rules of their Order. In all the principal monasteries was a scriptorium, in which the scriptor or scribe could pursue his work in quiet, generally assisted by a dictator, who read aloud the text to be copied; the manuscript was then revised by a corrector, and afterward handed to the miniator, who added the ornamental capitals and artistic designs.

It is more difficult to form a correct judgment respecting the age of Greek manuscripts from the character of the writing than it is respecting that of Latin manuscripts. In general it is to be remarked tha* in a Greek manuscript the strokes are lighter, easier and more flowing the older it is, and that they become stiffer in the progress of time. The absence or presence of the Greek accents is in no respect decisive. Some Greek papyri are earlier than the Christian era, but most are not earlier than about the 6th century. The characters in Latin manuscripts have been classified partly according to their size (majuscula, minúscula), partly according to the various shapes and characters which they assumed among different nations or in various periods (scriptura Romana antiqua, Merovingica, Longobardica, Carolingica, etc., to which has been added since the 12th century the Gothic, so called, which is an artificially pointed and angular character); and for all of those species of writing particular rules have been established, affording the means of estimating the age of a manuscript. Before the 8th century punctuation marks rarely occur: even after the introduction of punctuation, manuscripts may be met with destitute of points, but with the words separate. Manuscripts which have no capital or other divisions are always old. The catch-word, as it is termed, or the repetition of the first word of the following page at the end of the preceding, belongs to the 12th or subsequent centuries. The fewer and easier the abbreviations of a manuscript are the older it is. Finally, in the oldest manuscripts the words

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commonly join each other without break or separation. The division of words first became general in the 9th century. The form of the Arabic ciphers, which are seldom found in manuscripts earlier than the first half of the 13th century, also assists in deciding the age of a manuscript. Some manuscripts have at the end a statement when, and commonly also_by whom, they were written (dated codices). But this signature often denotes merely the time when the book was composed, or refers merely to a part of the manuscript, or is entirely spurious. The most ancient manuscripts still preserved are those written on papyrus which have been found in Egyptian tombs. Next to them in point of age are the Latin manuscripts found at Herculaneum, of which there is a rich collection in the Naples Museum. Then there are the manuscripts of the imperial era, among which are the Vatican Terence and Septuagint and the Biblical codices in the British Museum. Since the middle of the 19th century many manuscripts of Greek writings have been found in Egypt, among the chief being that containing the orations of Hyperides, several containing parts of the works of Homer, Plato, Demosthenes, etc., that in which occurs a portion of the Antiope of Euripides, and the almost complete text of Aristotle's work on the constitution of Athens. It was the custom in the Middle Ages to obliterate and erase writings on parchment for the purpose of writing on the materials anew, and these manuscripts, many of them of great value, are known as "palimpsests.» This custom ceased in the 14th century, probably because paper came then more into use. See LIBRARIES; MANUSCRIPTS ILLUM

INATED; MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE; PALEOGRAPHY; PAPYRUS. ANUSCRIPTS, Illuminated, are those whose text is heightened and brightened by vignettes and other decorations in colors, gold and silver. The verb to illuminate first occurs in the beginning of the

18th century; and means to decorate an initial letter, a word, or a text of a manuscript with gold, silver or brilliant colors, or with elaborate tracery, miniature illustrations and designs. The older verb was to enlumine (Old French enluminer; late Latin, inluminare; classic Latin, illuminare). It occurs, A.D. c. 1366, in Chaucer, A. B. C., 73, "Kalendeeres enlumyned ben"; A.D. c. 1400, Roman de la Rose,' 1695, "For it so welle was enlomyned"; A.D. 1430, Lydgate, 'Chron. Troy,' Prol., "For he enlumineth by craft and cadence this noble storye with many freshe coloure of Rhetorik." Illumination differs from painting, according to Ruskin, 'Modern Painters' (1856, Vol. III, iv, viii, sec. 9), in that "illumination admits no shadows, but only gradations of pure colour." The earliest writing of many peoples was by means of pictures. Witness the pictographs of Sumeria, that later evolved into Babylonian cuneiform script; the hieroglyphic writing of Egypt; the crude scrawls of our American Indians; and

the Aztec picture-writing, which still defies epigraphists. It was but natural that an art arose of embellishing these pictographs. Fifteen centuries before Christ the papyrus rolls that contain the ritualistic Book of the Dead' were illuminated with brilliantly colored scenes. In due time the art of illumination passed over to peoples whose script was alphabetic; it always remained an art of beautiful writing. There is truth, though characteristically narrow and dogmatic in expression, in the saying of Ruskin, Lectures on Art' (1870, v. 138): "Perfect illumination is only writing made lovely; the moment it passes into picture making it has lost its dignity and function."

I. Illumination in the East. 1. In Egypt. -The earliest specimens of illumination are on Egyptian papyrus rolls. Ritual directions are in red; hence the mediaval rubric. Profile portraits are inserted into the text. Agricultural and household scenes are interspersed between hieroglyphic signs. From the Egyptians the art of illumination reached the Hellenic folk of Alexandria. A 4th century B.C. papyrus manuscript of the poems of Timotheus, found at Abûsir, has a bird as a punctuation mark. Not until the Christian era do miniatures adorn the text. A 1st century A.D. Greek papyrus (Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris) shows a text that is adorned with miniatures in bold relief. A Berlin papyrus, Kaiser Friedrich Museum, illustrates the cure of a demoniac by Jesus. While in Hellenic Egypt the art of illumination thus progressed, the Coptic artists carried on a separate tradition from their ancient Egyptian forebears. A Coptic chronicle, dated 392 A.D. (Goleniscey collection) has a wealth of miniatures illustrative of the months, the provinces of Asia, the rulers of Rome, Lydia and Macedonia, together with the destruction of the Serapeum under the direction of the patriarch, Theophilus. The Morgan collection of Sahidic manuscripts, of the 9th and 10th centuries, contains a dozen manuscripts with miniatures of the Virgin and her Son, angels, martyrs, saints, hermits; and almost all of the 58 manuscript volumes of this remarkable Coptic library are illuminated with marginal decorative schemes of animals and plants.

2. In Syria.- The monks of Syria show the traditions of the Semitic orient in the illumination of manuscripts. Saint Augustine, Adv. Faustum (xiii, 6, 18), refers to the miniature illustration of Persian parchments. From the 5th century, there were monastic schools for illumination in Mesopotamia and Syria. The Syriac Evangeliary, 586 A.D., the work of Rabbula at Zagba in Mesopotamia, now in the Laurentian Library, Florence, is an exquisite work of art; the miniatures represent the Crucifixion, etc.; the marginal schemes are geometrical, and contain flowers, birds, etc. Some Hellenistic influence is noticeable; but Semitic traditions dominate in the Syriac school of illuminating. To this school belong also the extant Armenian illuminated manuscripts. Three evangeliaries, books of pericopic readings from the Epistles and Gospels, show the most beautiful work of Armenian miniaturists: that of Etschmiadzin, 10th century, copied from a 6th century model; that of Queen Mike, 902 A.D., Monastery of the Mechtarists, Venice; and the Tübingen Evangeliary, 1113 A.D. Mohammedan illumination copied Syriac in many Arabic, Turkish

and Persian manuscripts, chiefly of the Quran. The decorative work is often rich in its red, blue and gold cufic characters.

3. The Byzantine School.-In the Hellenistic speaking parts of the Byzantine Empire, the traditions of ancient Greece held sway; although iconoclasm interfered for a while with the progress of miniature painting, and Syriac influences were strong. Previous to the destructive vandalism of the iconoclasts, Byzantine miniaturists beautified the great 6th century purple parchment, Biblical codices: L, Vienna Genesis, silver letters; N, Cod. Purpureus, silver letters, Gospels, most of manuscript at Petrograd; 2, Cod. Rossanensis, silver letters, Matthew and Mark, at Rossano, in Calabria; b, Cod. Sinopensis, gold letters, Matthew, in the Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris; , Cod. Beratinus, Matthew and Mark, at Berat, Albania. These illuminated manuscripts contain Biblical scenes, the bearded face of the Christ, etc.,- all in miniature. To this period of Byzantine illumination belongs the Roll of Joshua,' 11 yards long, at the Vatican, which pictures the story of the great leader; and the manuscript of Dioscorides, at Vienna, 472 A.D., containing portraits of physicians that were copied from originals. All this early Byzantine illumination was along broad lines, free from stereotyped forms,- save the hieratic and fixed faces, classic in artistic merit, brilliant in coloring, and profusely decorated with gold.

Iconoclasm during the 8th and 9th centuries wrought havoc to the art of illumination in the Byzantine Empire. Precious manuscripts were recklessly destroyed or ruthlessly mutilated. The artists of the iconoclastic period substituted ornamentation for miniature; flora, fauna and geometric forms for figure-painting. An instance of their work is the Evangeliary) at Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris, Gr. 631. The triumph of image-worship, 842 A.D., brought about a return to the painting of figures. The 10th to the 12th centuries were the most glorious period of Byzantine miniaturists. About 40 years after the restoration of image-worship, the 'Sermons of Saint Gregory of Nazianzen) (Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris, Gr. 510), 880 c. A.D., were executed, and embellished by a series of large, beautiful miniatures. The 'Paris Psalter, dating from the 10th century (Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris, Gr. 139), has scenes of the life of David, reproduced from 3d or 4th century models, that vie with the frescoes of Pompeii in freshness and brilliancy. The 'Homilies of Saint John Chrysostom,' Paris, a manuscript which belonged to Nicephorus III (1078-81 A.D.) is likewise a good example of Byzantine illumination at its maturity. The Psalter and the Menologion, a brief sketch of the lives of the saints for each day, were at this time most frequently decorated. The 'Vatican Psalter) (1059 A.D.), in the Barberini Library; and the Menologion of Basil II (9761025 A.D.) in the Vatican, are rich in miniatures of brilliant coloring. Here should be mentioned the Slavic school of illumination. It was Byzantine at first; and gave us the 'Chloudov Psalter,' 9th century, at Moscow. Between the 12th and 16th centuries, a national style appeared, which is characteristic of many of the numerous and richly illumined manuscripts of the libraries and museums of Petrograd and Moscow.