obtained honorable terms. This broke his health and he died of a slow fever.

MANUEL II, Palæologus, pā-lē-ŏl'ō-gus, a Byzantine emperor, born in 1350, succeeded his father, Joannes V, in 1391, died in 1425. At the death of his father he fled from the court of the sultan Bajazet, with whom he had been left as a hostage. The consequence was a war with Bajazet, in which Manuel was supported by an army of Hungarians, Germans and French. The allies, under the command of Sigismund, king of Hungary and afterward emperor of Germany, were defeated at Nicopolis in 1396, with the loss of 10,000 men. Constantinople was besieged, and its fall seemed impending, when the conquests of Tamerlane diverted the arms of the sultan. Manuel visited Italy, France and Germany, vainly seeking assistance from the Western princes. In the conflict between the Tartars and the Turks, he acted with diplomatic skill, and secured peace to his empire. He sent ambassadors to the Council of Constance with instructions to urge a union of the Latin and Greek churches; but his real object was only to obtain aid from the kingdoms of the West, and to alarm the Turks by the negotiations with those kingdoms.

MANUEL II, ex-king of Portugal, younger son of Carlos I: b. Lisbon, 15 Nov. 1889. He was known as the Duke of Beja and scandalous reports of his life in Paris were circulated before it was thought he would succeed to the throne. Consequently his accession on the asassination of his father and the Crown Prince on 1 Feb. 1908 was not the occasion of great popular rejoicing. He took the oath as king on 6 May 1908. His private life continued to alienate the affection of the people and on 5 Oct. 1910 the Republicans overturned his throne and proclaimed a republic. Manuel fled to England where he resided at Twickenham with his uncle, the Duke of Orleans. From there in 1911 he directed uprisings in Portugal with the object of abolishing the republic. These proved unsuccessful as did others in succeeding years and the entrance of Portugal into the war of 1914-18 as a member of the Entente appeared to put an end definitely to Royalist uprisings in that country despite huge sums spent by the Germans in propaganda to that end. Manuel married Princess Augustine Victoria of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1913; the union proved uphappy and a separation resulted.

MANUEL, Don Juan, Spanish prince and author: b. Escalona, Spain, 5 May 1282; d. 1349. He was a nephew of Alfonso X, and cousin of Sancho IV. His public life was a restless and turbulent one, but his chief claim to remembrance comes from the fact that he was one of the first and one of the best of Spanish prose writers. He wrote in a style of singular simplicity and charm, and few Spanish authors have succeeded so well in giving to their words the calmness, the weight, the richness which come only from long experience and reflection. His principal work that remains is 'Libro de Patronio,' more commonly known as 'El Conde Lucanor,' which has been translated into the French and German languages.

MANUFACTURERS, National Association of, an American association organized in Cincinnati in 1895. It had three primary ob

jects increasing the export trade; influencing State and national legislation; and arbitrating labor disputes. The Association maintains a general office in New York City and issues numerous confidential reports and bulletins for the exclusive use of its members. The Association is opposed to all boycotts and blacklists, but is not opposed to labor organizations, though it has resisted many of their rulings, and is popularly considered as antagonistic, because of the vigor with which it pushed the now famous suit against the American Federation of Labor, for its boycott of the Bucks Stove and Range Company. This was a long-fought test case, and the manufacturers won, stopping all official boycotting. Since 1913 the Association has directed its attention largely against the Independent Workers of the World, generally with success. The Manufacturers' Association has given considerable effort to promoting constructive legislation to aid manufacturers, and has made some gains in patent law, but signally failed in securing better terms from the PostOffice Department. It publishes American Industries (monthly), which has 35,000 circulation, and is edited by F. W. Keough; and The American Trade Index (monthly).

MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED STATES. See UNITED STATES, COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF.

MANUL, mä'nul, the common wildcat of Siberia and Tibet. It is smaller than the European wildcat, stockily built, has a moderately long tail and a coat of long hair. The general color is yellowish white, with a blackish mark on the chest and upper part of the fore legs, and some dark lines across the haunches and ringing the tail. Two black lines on the cheeks and a black spot behind the short ear are other distinguishing marks. There is a very curious similitude of appearance between this animal and the pampas cat of Patagonia.

MANUMISSION, in Roman law, the solemn ceremony by which a slave was emancipated. Constantine the Great allowed the Christian masters to emancipate their slaves before the altar on festival days, and especially at Easter, by placing the deed of emancipation on the head of the freedman in the presence of the congregation. See EMANCIPATION; EMANCIPATION IN LATIN AMERICA; EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION.

MANURES AND MANURING. See AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY; FERTILIZERS.

MANUSCRIPTS (Latin, manuscriptus, written by the hand), are literally writing of any kind, whether on paper or any other material, in contradistinction to printed matter. Previous to the introduction of printing all literature was contained in manuscripts. All the existing ancient manuscripts are written on parchment or on paper. The paper is sometimes Egyptian (prepared from the real papyrus shrub), sometimes cotton or silk paper (charta bombycina), which was invented in the East about the year 706 A.D., and used till the introduction of linen paper, and in common with this till the middle of the 14th century; sometimes linen paper, the date of the invention of which, though ascribed to the first half of the 13th century, on the authority of a document of the year 1243, written on such paper, is

nevertheless exceedingly doubtful. The earliest mention of quill pens is in the 7th century. The most common ink is the black, which is very old. The oldest, however, was not mixed with vitriol, like ours, but generally consisted of soot, lamp-black, burned ivory, pulverized charcoal, etc. Red ink of a dazzling beauty is also found in ancient times in manuscripts. With it were written the initial letters, the first lines, and the titles, which were thence called rubrics, and the writer rubricator. More rarely, but still quite frequently, blue ink is found in ancient manuscripts; yet more rarely green and yellow. Gold and silver were also used for writing either whole manuscripts (which, from their costliness, are great rarities), or for adorning the initial letters of books. With respect to external form, manuscripts are divided into rolls (volumina, the most ancient way, in which the troubadours in France wrote their poems at a much later period) and into stitched books or volumes (properly codices). Among the ancients the writers of manuscripts were mainly freedmen or slaves (scribæ librarii). Some of the professional copyists in Rome were women. When Origen undertook the revision of the Old Testament (231 A.D.), Saint Ambrose sent to his assistance a number of deacons and virgins skilful in caligraphy. Subsequently the monks, among them the Benedictines in particular, were bound to this employment by the rules of their Order. In all the principal monasteries was a scriptorium, in which the scriptor or scribe could pursue his work in quiet, generally assisted by a dictator, who read aloud the text to be copied; the manuscript was then revised by a corrector, and afterward handed to the miniator, who added the ornamental capitals and artistic designs.

It is more difficult to form a correct judgment respecting the age of Greek manuscripts from the character of the writing than it is respecting that of Latin manuscripts. In general it is to be remarked that in a Greek manuscript the strokes are lighter, easier and more flowing the older it is, and that they become stiffer in the progress of time. The absence or presence of the Greek accents is in no respect decisive. Some Greek papyri are earlier than the Christian era, but most are not earlier than about the 6th century. The characters in Latin manuscripts have been classified partly according to their size (majuscula, minuscula), partly according to the various shapes and characters which they assumed among different nations or in various periods (scriptura Romana antiqua, Merovingica, Longobardica, Carolingica, etc., to which has been added since the 12th century the Gothic, so called, which is an artificially pointed and angular character); and for all of those species of writing particular rules have been established, affording the means of estimating the age of a manuscript. Before the 8th century punctuation marks rarely occur: even after the introduction of punctuation, manuscripts may be met with destitute of points, but with the words separate. Manuscripts which have_no capital or other divisions are always old. The catch-word, as it is termed, or the repetition of the first word of the following page at the end of the preceding, belongs to the 12th or subsequent centuries. The fewer and easier the abbreviations of a manuscript are the older it is. Finally, in the oldest manuscripts the words

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commonly join each other without break or separation. The division of words first became general in the 9th century. The form of the Arabic ciphers, which are seldom found in manuscripts earlier than the first half of the 13th century, also assists in deciding the age of a manuscript. Some manuscripts have at the end a statement when, and commonly also by whom, they were written (dated codices). But this signature often denotes merely the time when the book was composed, or refers merely to a part of the manuscript, or is entirely spurious. The most ancient manuscripts still preserved are those written on papyrus which have been found in Egyptian tombs. Next to them in point of age are the Latin manuscripts found at Herculaneum, of which there is a rich collection in the Naples Museum. Then there are the manuscripts of the imperial era, among which are the Vatican Terence and Septuagint and the Biblical codices in the British Museum. Since the middle of the 19th century many manuscripts of Greek writings have been found in Egypt, among the chief being that containing the orations of Hyperides, several containing parts of the works of Homer, Plato, Demosthenes, etc., that in which occurs a portion of the Antiope of Euripides, and the almost complete text of Aristotle's work on the constitution of Athens. It was the custom in the Middle Ages to obliterate and erase writings on parchment for the purpose of writing on the materials anew, and these manuscripts, many of them of great value, are known as "palimpsests.» This custom ceased in the 14th century, probably because paper came then more into use. See LIBRARIES; MANUSCRIPTS ILLUM

INATED; MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE; PALEOGRAPHY; PAPYRUS. ANUSCRIPTS, Illuminated, are those whose text is heightened and brightened by vignettes and other decorations in colors, gold and silver. The verb to illuminate first occurs in the beginning of the

18th century; and means to decorate an initial letter, a word, or a text of a manuscript with gold, silver or brilliant colors, or with elaborate tracery, miniature illustrations and designs. The older verb was to enlumine (Old French enluminer; late Latin, inluminare; classic Latin, illuminare). It occurs, A.D. c. 1366, in Chaucer, A. B. C., 73, "Kalendeeres enlumyned ben"; A.D. c. 1400, 'Roman de la Rose,' 1695, "For it so welle was enlomyned"; A.D. 1430, Lydgate, 'Chron. Troy,' Prol., "For he enlumineth by craft and cadence this noble storye with many freshe coloure of Rhetorik." Illumination differs from painting, according to Ruskin, 'Modern Painters (1856, Vol. III, iv, viii, sec. 9), in that "illumination admits no shadows, but only gradations of pure colour." The earliest writing of many peoples was by means of pictures. Witness the pictographs of Sumeria, that later evolved into Babylonian cuneiform script; the hieroglyphic writing of Egypt; the crude scrawls of our American Indians; and

ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS

1 Psaltery (about 1470)

3 Psaltery and office (14th century)

2 Gospels (1275 A. D.)

4 Office of the Dead (Early 16th century)