room and expects to be paid for them, and no amount of training in any school will fit him, except in rare instances, for more than a subordinate position.

While the apprenticeship system never prevailed here as extensively as in older countries, yet in a modified form, and under a different name, the essential elements of that system largely control in determining advancements and promotions. Business-men believe in the merit system. They practically follow civil-service rules in filling the higher positions in all departments of their business. Effective service in the lower order of duties is the only recognized claim for advancement to higher duties, and the young man who does not show proficiency in the less important "small things" of his calling is lost. There is nothing ahead for him. The ability to hold any position in commercial life, either in its higher executive or its administrative department, presumes the ability to do the work of any minor position.

If the public school shall do this much well for the commercial student and for the business-man wanting help in his office, it will have discharged its greatest responsibility. Whatever it shall do in addition to this will be mainly to give him such a broad general education, discipline, and fund of information as will enable him to advance more rapidly, and with greater assurance of success, toward the more responsible and more lucrative opportunities that may come to him. If the school can give him in addition to the fundamentals the individual power that comes from a trained mind, and so equip him in modern language, science, economics, mathematics, and history that he can extend his business interests more widely into domestic and foreign markets, so much more fully will the school have discharged its obligations to the community and to society.

I cannot agree with those who contend that it is not the business of the commercial high school to train bookkeepers and stenographers, or that commercial education in the public high school should not be specific and technical as well as general and liberal. It may be very agreeable to reason that the work and purpose of the public high school and of the private business school are entirely different and distinct, but such a conclusion is based upon false premises in so far as the technical branches are concerned. If the instruction and training of the high school are to be effective, they must prepare pupils to do the work that will be demanded of them when they seek employment; for the young graduate from the high school must go to exactly the same employer and be prepared to do the same work as the young graduate from the private business school.

In our argument so far we have endeavored to establish the major importance of instruction in that group of branches which is sometimes classed under the head of "business technique," and relates to office

training, and which for the most part are included in the curriculum of the high-grade business college.

We may now properly give attention to instruction in the minor or secondary branches which have for their aim the cultural, scholastic, and liberal training of the youth, in distinction from the special or technical, which we have already discussed. The term "secondary" is used advisedly from the standpoint of practical utility.

The branches already referred to will require at least eight years of one period per day, and, if stenography and typewriting are included, ten years, or two and one-half periods per day thruout a four-years' course. This leaves at our disposal two and one-half periods per day which may be devoted to such other branches as seem best adapted to prepare pupils for general commercial life, or will most likely be of the greatest value to him in advancing to higher grades of employment.

The age of pupils entering the public high school averages from fourteen to sixteen years, which is considerably short of the age of mental or physical maturity. This must limit to some extent the amount of advanced instruction we might deem profitable for more mature students.

Again, our great business enterprises are so vastly different in their nature that it is apparent that an ideal course of study should offer many electives from which a pupil might select those which would prepare him for a special line of business. A highly specialized course, however, is not possible for the general high school, but must be left to the few highly organized schools which will doubtless be founded in time in our large commercial and industrial centers. It is evident that the ordinary commercial high-school course must be organized along general lines restricted to supplying the wants of the average pupil.

What will be the best use of the two hours and a half per day for four years which we have remaining at our disposal? Local conditions should be considered. The course of study suited to the needs of a New England manufacturing town would hardly be found the best course for a western mining town. Neither would a course adapted to the wants of a great iron center, like Pittsburg, be likely to be desirable for the city of Baltimore or Philadelphia.

In a general way it is safe to assume that the time should be divided among the subjects of mathematics, science, economics, modern languages, and history. In mathematics, elementary algebra and geometry at least should be completed. In science, chemistry, physics, and commercial geography should be given ample attention. If proper laboratory facilities are provided, instruction in the elements of mineralogy, botany, zoology, industrial chemistry, and biology may be made very effective.

A thoro course in industrial economics and political science I deem to be of paramount importance, especially as to a study of local economic

controls, transportation, and public administration, particularly of city and local governments.

One or two years may be profitably devoted to modern languages, and of course history, ancient and modern, and especially in its relations to commerce and industry, should have attention.

Just what proportion of time should be devoted to the various groups of subjects is also a matter that must be determined, to some extent at least, by the local surroundings of the school.

The time has arrived when the public high school must provide a course of study that will prepare young men and women for an immediate engagement in business life. If our arguments are sound and our conclusions correct the commercial course must give its first attention to the fundamentals. They must not only be extensively taught, but they must be thoroly taught by competent instructors supplied with proper facilities and equipments. A well-organized commercial course maintained on an equality with other courses of study is the preferable course for a large majority of young men and women. Such a course, to succeed and attract the best class of students, must have the same support, financial, educational, and moral, as is given the English, classical, or any other course. The business-man desiring help in his office does not want the supply to come from a school in which the commercial course is so inferior to other courses that it attracts only the dullards and slowboys.

When the teaching fraternity, and especially the superintendents and principals of the country, realize fully the extent to which the commercial course should command their support and care, and the extent to which it will minister to the material welfare of the great masses of the people, and that it is their duty to provide that instruction which is most helpful, uplifting, and beneficial — when that time comes the business-man will quickly appreciate the advantage of employing the highly trained young men and women who come from the high school, and he, with the community at large, will reap the benefits.

DISCUSSION

H. E. DANN, director of commercial department, Ithaca, N. Y., contended that commercial law was decidedly overworked, and advocated eliminating it from the highschool commercial course.

The president, leaving the platform, said in reply that the difficulty which the speaker had found evidently resulted from attempting too much. He erred in supposing contracts to be a difficult subject for the student, the ordinary contract being in fact a very simple paper.

SUPERINTENDENT C. G. PEARSE, Omaha, Neb., said that he would not attempt to discuss the paper, but desired to commend the well-defined sentiment expressed in favor of a four-years' commercial course, and stated that 40 per cent. of the pupils applying for admission to the Omaha high school chose the commercial course, even after being informed, individually, that the course covered four full years and was thoro and difficult.

LENGTH AND CONTENT OF COMMERCIAL COURSES

WILLIAM E. DOGGETT, ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL, COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N. y.

A quarter of a century ago the term "commercial education," as applied to the school, did not signify anything definite, dignified, or important from the public-school man's point of view.

A business education, to the proprietor of a business college and to its students, meant a course in penmanship, more or less ornamental in character, and a course in bookkeeping, with such incidental practice in arithmetic as was needed to work out a few examples in interest, in discounting notes, and perhaps a few problems in equation of payments. In the better business colleges this was well done, and was supplemented with thoro drill in other subjects which would be of aid to the pupil. In others the teaching was poor, and was given by men whose chief claim to the position held was ability to write beautifully. College professors, superintendents of public schools, and principals of high schools looked with disdain upon the work of the business college, and with contempt. upon most of the instructors. About 1880, it began to dawn upon the minds of some of the more progressive public-school men that the very existence of these anomalous business colleges was proof that they weresome of them, at least-of value to the community; that they were offering to the public something for which there was a positive demand, and something which the public schools did not furnish. If the principal of a public school was a good writer he would probably give some instruction in penmanship to his higher classes, and, if he understood bookkeeping, would probably have a class in that subject; and thus a few of those so inclined would learn the use of the day-book, cash-book, journal, and ledger. But there was nothing systematic about this, nor was it obligatory or a part of any course. To be up with the times, a few of the progressive men in some large cities established commercial courses in their respective high schools. These courses, modeled largely after the business colleges, included arithmetic, i. e., the so-called "commercial arithmetic," bookkeeping, and occasionally commercial law, while penmanship was not usually deemed a subject worthy of the attention of a highschool teacher. But for some time this course was not given such hospitable treatment as the longer established courses received, nor were its pupils placed upon a par with other members of the school. riably a special teacher in Greek and Latin, French, German, mathematics, science, or English would be provided, a special teacher of commercial branches was not thought necessary, and the various subjects of the commercial course were farmed out among those of the faculty who happened to have a little spare time on their hands after their regular assignments

While inva

had been made. A few more years passed and a special teacher of commercial branches was a tolerated member of the faculty of some of the high schools, and practice in writing became a regular part of the weekly program. Very soon commercial departments began to appear in normal schools of many of the states, and the smaller business centers adopted commercial courses as a part of their curriculum.

Twenty-five years ago there was only a little commercial teaching in some of the schools. Now we are confronted on all sides with the expressions, "commercial education," "commercial high schools," "schools of commerce;" and what does it all mean? Simply that this is the age of remarkable commercial activity and development, and that the country is beginning to realize the value of the services of the educated man in business lines as greater than that of the uneducated man, be he never so shrewd, industrious, tactful, honest. In other words, the notion that the things useful and necessary in business could be learned only in the office or the factory or the counting-house is fast disappearing, and a conviction that hereafter, in business as well as in law, in medicine or in war, the school is to be the foundation stone of the superstructure, is taking its place. We are discovering that material prosperity is dependent on educational activity to a marked degree; that progress of nations in the line of commercial advancement will depend as much upon the work done in the schools as upon anything else. With this view of the case, what are we to do? What part are we commercial teachers to play in this remarkable drama of the twentieth century?

In this session of the Department of Business Education of the National Educational Association, in which it is hoped the problems of commercial education are to receive more systematic attention and treatment than ever before, I have been assigned to give my views on the length and content of commercial courses in public schools. This is a broad subject, and in its widest sense includes the settlement of nearly all of the questions incidental to the discussion of public commercial education. I purpose, however, only to call your attention to some conclusions which I have reached after many years of painstaking observation and study in public-school teaching under circumstances which have seemed to me to be specially favorable. In order that you may know the point of view from which I look at this question, permit me to state a few principles and facts in which I thoroly believe :

1. I believe that, as public education is a state undertaking for the benefit of the state itself, it should, so far as possible, meet the needs of all, and be so instituted and directed as to secure the greatest good to the greatest number.

2. That, if the teaching of commercial subjects is called for by any community, it should be provided in such form and measure and at such a place in the student's school life as will accomplish the most good for him.

3. That in educational matters it is the weak who need aid first, not the strong; that it is the sick who need the physician, not those who are well or able to take care of themselves.