Costa Rica.

As minister under José Maria Alfonso, he was instrumental in establishing the University at Santo Tomás. In 1846 he was Vice-President and in 1847 was elected President. Among his reforms were the founding of a normal school, girls' school, the creation of the office of "City Physician," local public charities bureaus; abolishment of the death penalty for political adversaries; and the establishment of Costa Rica as an independent state. After Costa Rica withdrew from the

Central American states, he resigned the presidency, but held diplomatic positions. He received the official designation of "Founder of the Republic of Costa Rica." From 1866 to the rise of the Jimenez government (1868) he was again President.

CASTRO Y BELLVIS, běl'vēs, Guillén, Spanish poet and dramatist: b. Valencia 1569; d. Madrid, 28 July 1631. Next to Lope de Vega he is the greatest Spanish dramatic poet of his day. He lived at an age when Spanish drama was almost at its best; for the dramatic writers who followed him and Lope de Vega added practically nothing to the essentials of the drama. Their efforts were spent in adding literary adornments to it. Castro's work had a strong influence on his own and succeeding generations of dramatists and, in a secondary sense, on all Spanish literature. He was born of an old and noble family; and such comparatively slight information as survives relative to his life shows that he had always friends in high positions who were constantly interesting themselves in his welfare. He was successively captain of the mounted coast guard of Valencia, governor of Seyano and cupant of other high positions under the government. From the Duke of Osuna he received a pension of 1,000 crowns; and the Count of Olivares secured for him a pension of like amount from the King. Through this same strong court influence he was created a knight of the Order of Saint James in 1623. All his friends, admirers and followers ranked him as at least the equal in dramatic talent to Lope de Vega.

OC

The age in which Castro lived was one of encouragement of literature; and Valencia, the "romantic home of the Cid" was one of the two great literary centres of Spain. Literary societies and guilds formed a prominent part of the life of the city; and literary contests, lyrical, epic, dramatic and pastoral, formed a part of the order of the day. Castro took a prominent part in these literary contests and won many prizes and honors in competitions held by the Church, the State and the literary guilds. A very active theatre completed the incentive to literary and, more especially, dramatic life, to which Castro was irresistibly drawn. At the age of 20 he was already counted among the promising young poets of his day and he apparently counted among his friends the powerful and brilliant literary set of Valencia. He appears to have been much of a spendthrift and to have been cursed with an imperious and haughty temper which continually estranged from him friends of high estate; and as his reputation as a poet and dramatist grew, his infirmities of temper seem to have increased and to have been the direct cause of the loss of many of the social and

material advantages which he had enjoyed in his earlier life. It was maintained by his carlier biographers that he finally became reduced to such poverty that he was buried at the public expense. But his will, which was signed a few days before his death, and which is still in existence, would seem to disprove this, as it disposed of considerable property. He undoubtedly had, to the end of his days, a certain income from his literary work which was in constant demand by the regular theatres and the Church, and must, therefore, have been well paid for. Moreover it is known that the habit of the Order of Santiago was conferred upon him in Madrid in 1623, only eight years before his death.

To Castro the historical drama in Spain owes much; and his influence in this literary field was strongly felt in France and England. Castro's 'Don Quixote' was imitated by Guérin de Bouscal and presented in Paris in 1635; Moreto found his model for 'El Ligno don Diego' in 'El Narciso en su opinion); Fletcher's 'Love's Care' is derived from 'Fuerza de la costumbre'; and Calderon's 'Magico prodigioso' from 'El prodigio de los montes.' Even to-day the best known of his dramas, 'Las mocedades del Cid,' slightly modified, is ever welcome on the Spanish stage; and it is looked upon in Spain as one of the great literary inheritances of the Spanish people. This play is avowedly the inspiration of Corneille's 'Le Cid.' From the purely dramatic point of view the 'Cid' of Castro is superior to that of Corneille, though the latter gains in simplicity what it loses in the picturesque effects of the Spanish original. Castro set a taste in Spanish drama which long prevailed, and which, to a certain extent, persists to-day. His characters reflect, especially in the 'Cid, the chivalrous or romantic times in which they lived. His plot and characters are very animated and are dressed out in beauty of imagery and thought. Castro is, therefore, in a sense, the father of the drama of chivalry. His inventiveness and his management of plot are superior to that of any Spanish dramatist previous to his time. In all of these respects Castro's Mocedades del Cid' is superior to Corneille's 'Cid.' The former and Las Hazañas del Cid' together, in a sense, form one dramatic work which has made the name of Castro known among all the literary nations of Europe. In France Castro was held in even higher esteem than in Spain; and to the popularity of his numerous dramas, some 40 in all, is due his literary influence on succeeding generations for both good and for bad. While he bequeathed to the drama a vividness, reality, force and action previously lacking in Spain, he also left it a tendency to licentiousness and disrespect for the laws and customs of conventionality; and he glorified the romantic age with its intrigues, its rule of force, its duels and other conflicts. Born in Valencia, the home of the Cid, he was deeply inspired by the legends and glorious traditions of his native city; and his patriotism frequently bursts out into ardent flame. With wonderful facility and an appearance of reality and truth, he recreates chivalric conditions and feudal manners; and the old sentiments of honor and patriotism are ever at his beck and call. But he is lavish in more titanic effects. The meet

ing of infidel and Christian, the life of the Crusades and the shock of battle he handles with equal facility and familiarity.

When he turns to comedy, which he frequently does, Castro lays bare the follies, vices and customs of his age. Life as he knows it he put on the stage. For the most part, the life of his day was not a good life; and Castro makes it no better than it actually was. Hence his plays have been condemned for their immorality and his detractors have lost sight of his vast and many-sided contributions to the stage, in their efforts to discredit him, which unfortunately were, for a time, only too successful. His dramatic work covers the whole wide dramatic field. His most noted historical dramas are: 'Las mocedades del Cid'; 'La justicia en la piedad': 'Pagar en propia moneda'; 'Allá van leyes do quieren reyes'; 'La humanidad soberbia y el amor constante'. To his romantic dramas belong 'El Conde de Alarcos'; 'El nacimiento de Montecinos'; and 'El desengaño dichoso’; while to the capa y espada class belong 'El narciso en su opinion'; 'La fuerza de la costumbre'; and Los mal casados de Valencia. His dramas of costumbres y caracteres in which he displays criminal loves, intrigues and, in general, the follies of his day, and holds the mirror up to life in a masterly manner, include 'El curioso impertinente'; 'Don Quixote'; 'La verdad averiguada y engañoso casamiento'; 'El pretender con pobreza'; 'Engañarse engañado'; and 'El perfecto caballero'. His freedom in depicting society as he found it has placed his dramas on the taboo list in most Protestant countries. Mythology, too, met with skilful and sympathetic treatment at the hands of Castro in the drama 'Progne y Filomena.' The semi-mystical, semi-religious drama he also handled better than his predecessors in El mejor esposo San José'; 'Las maravillas de Babilonia'; 'El prodigio de los montes y mario del cielo Santa Bárbara' and 'La degollación de San Juan Bautista'. He has attempted heroic tragedy with considerable success in Dido y Eneas. Among his other dramas are 'El Conde de Irlos'; 'Los enemigos hermanos'; 'Cuando se estima el honor'; El vicio de los extremos'; 'La fuerza de la sangre. The following works have also, with apparently good reason, been attributed to Castro: El caballero bobo'; 'El dudoso en la venganza'; 'Ingratitud por amor'; 'El nieto de su padre'; 'Donde no está su dueño está su duelo; El enamorado mudo'; 'Quién malas manas ha'; 'Quién no se aventura'; and 'La tragedia por los celos.' He also wrote dramas in collaboration with other dramatists. In two of these, La manzana de la discordia,' and 'El robo de Elena,' he worked with Mira de Mescua. In 1621 La primera parte de las comedias de don Guillén de Castro' was published at Valencia; and the second part four years later at the same place. See POEM OF THE CID. Consult Biblioteca de autores españoles Vol. XLIII (which contains seven of his plays); Forster, W., 'Las mocedades del Cid' (Bonn 1878); Merimé, E., Première partie des mocedades del Cid) (Toulouse 1890); Rennert, H. A., Ingratitud por amor' (Philadelphia 1899).

JOHN HUBERT CORNYN, Editorial Staff of the Americana.

CASTRO-DEL-RIO, Spain, a town in the province of Córdoba, 16 miles southeast of Córdoba, on a slope above the Guadajoz. The more ancient portion is surrounded by a dilapidated wall, flanked with towers, and entered by one gate, which was defended by an Arab castle, now also ruinous. The modern portion is outside the walls, and extends along the foot of the hill on its north side. The most of the streets are wide and regular, lined with wellbuilt houses and handsome public edifices. The church is large and handsome, and there are also several convents, two colleges, primary schools, hospitals and manufactures of linen, woolen and earthenware. There is a considerable trade in agricultural produce. Pop. about 12,000.

CASTRO-URDIALES, oor-dē-ä'lās, Spain, seaport town, Santander province, on the Bay of Biscay, connecting by a branch line with the Bilbao-Santander Railway. An ancient town with a mediæval castle and parish church, it has grown rapidly since 1870, through the development of neighboring iron mines and increased railway facilities. In a recent year, exports of iron rose to 277,200 tons. Fishing and the canning of fish, especially sardines in oil, is also a thriving industry. Pop. 14,200.

CASTROGIOVANNI, kä-strō jō-vän'nē, or CASTRO GIOVANNI (anc. ÉNNA), a city of Sicily, in the district of Caltanissetta, on a plateau in the centre of the island, 4,000 feet above the sea. The climate is healthful, the soil fertile and water abundant. The old feudal fortress of Enna is the chief edifice. It contains also a cathedral, founded in 1307, a public library, a museum, a technical institute and a castle built by Frederick II of Aragon. It was the fabled birthplace of Ceres, and the site of her most famous temple. About five miles distant is the lake of Pergusa, where Proserpine, according to the poets, was carried off by Pluto. During the first servile war the insurgent slaves made Enna their headquarters. It was captured by the Saracens in the 9th and by the Normans in the 11th century. It has trade in sulphur and rock salt. Pop. 28,932.

CASTRUM DOLORIS, a Latin term signifying camp of grief, has a different meaning from catafalque (q.v.). The latter is used to denote an elevated tomb, containing the coffin of a distinguished person, together with the tapers around, ornaments, armorial bearings, inscriptions, etc., placed in the midst of a church or hall. The castrum doloris is the whole room in which the catafalque is elevated, with all the decorations. The sarcophagus, usually empty, is exposed for show upon an elevation covered with black cloth, under a canopy surrounded with candelabra. Upon the coffin is laid some mark of the rank of the deceased, as his epaulette or sword, and, when the deceased is a sovereign or a member of a ruling family, princely insignia are placed on surrounding seats. The French call the castrum doloris, chapelle ardente, sometimes also chambre ardente; but the latter has also a separate meaning.

CASTUERA, käs-too-a'rä, Spain, town in the province of Badajoz, near the right bank' of the Guadaleja. Most of its streets are straight, clean and well paved. It has two

squares, lined with substantial houses; the principal one contains the town-hall, prisons and spacious modern parish church. The inhabitants are engaged in weaving, making earthenware, tiles, bricks, shoes. Trade is carried on in cattle, wool, wine, grain and oil. Pop. 6,322.

CASUARINA, kǎs-ù-a-ri'na, or BEEFWOOD, the single genus of the family Casuarinacea, or cassowary-trees. There are about 30 species, natives chiefly of Australia. They are jointed leafless trees or shrubs, having their male one-stamened flowers in whorled catkins, and their fruits in indurated cones. Some of them produce timber called beefwood, from its color. C. quadrivalvis is called the she-oak. C. equisetifolia is the best-known species, and is much cultivated in Florida and California, and in tropical regions generally.

CASUISTRY, the science or art of determining cases of conscience and the moral character of human acts; so called from casus conscientiæ, a case of conscience. Wherever the question arises, Is such an act allowable by moral law? there is a case of conscience and matter of casuistry, and in deciding the question for himself, as everyone habitually does, everyone is a casuist. But in current usage a casuist is one who, skilled in the prescriptions of the divine moral law and its interpretation whether by lawgivers, moralists or theologians, studies either supposititious or actual cases of conscience and judges whether a given act, or even a given thought is consistent with or in violation of moral law-for, unlike the civil lawgiver or the ministers of civil law, the casuist must determine the moral character of thoughts no less, or rather more, than of acts. The professional casuist is inevitable in the system of the Catholic Church, where the minister of religion, in his capacity of confessarius or confessor must be the counsellor and director of penitents and resolve for them questions of guilt or innocence, questions touching the obligation to restitution, for example of goods, or reparation of damage to a neighbor's reputation by slander; granting or withholding absolution according to the merits. For the minister of the sacrament of penance acts under Jesus Christ's commission, whose sins ye shall forgive, whose sins ye shall retain, shall be forgiven or retained; and to execute that commission the minister of the sacrament must decide for himself and the penitent the moral character of the acts. The science or art of casuistry has doubtless been carried to extraordinary lengths; but though the questions which it treats are such as touch individually and most intimately daily and hourly the many millions of souls who resort to the confessional, the works of writers on casuistry, though voluminous, would count as a scant armful compared with only one part of the works contained in a law library-those which record the decisions of the civil courts. It is true also and inevitable that casuistry like law lore is often employed as a means of escaping from legal penalty or of quieting the sense of guilt. As there are lawyers who for a fee will defend any cause however defenseless morally, even to the extent of working injustice-loss of property, loss of reputation to the party opposite

so there are casuists who by their overinclining to an indulgent interpretation of the

divine moral law, release or cut the nerve of moral responsibility, administer an opiate to conscience.

Probabilism is the name given to the doctrine which declares to be lawful in foro conscientiæ an act the moral correctness of which is affirmed by any moral theologian of weight (doctor gravis); or, as defined by Liguori, a probable opinion is one which rests on a solid foundation (fundamento gravi) both of reason and of authority, so that it is able to move the assent (flectere assensum) of a prudent man, though with fear regarding the opposite. But a writer in a great encyclopædia, who regards probabilism as "the most remarkable doctrine they (the casuists) promulgated - - a doctrine which it is hard to believe that any one ever ventured to assert" teaches that "according to probabilism" "any opinion which has been expressed by a grave doctor' may be looked upon as possessing a fair amount of probability, and may, therefore, be safely followed, even though one's conscience may insist upon the opposite course": the last clause is gratuitous and has no warrant in the teachings of Catholic moralists, who unanimously hold that an act done in defiance of conscience, even be it a plainly erroneous conscience, is a sin.

Viewed in the abstract, the rule of the probabilists is not an unreasonable one; it is acted upon daily by whoever, doubting his own judgment, asks counsel of others whom he regards as trustworthy advisers, even though they be not grave doctors (graves doctores). It is admitted that some of the probabilists, even the greatest of them, as Escobar, Suarez, Busembaum, did not always guard the doctrine against misconstruction, and gave occasion for views of moral obligation which were too lax: but the ecclesiastical censure has fallen upon such erroneous teachings, without discrediting for Catholic moralists the principle of probabilism. Let any other school of moral teaching set to itself the same task which confronts the moral theologian of the Catholic Church, that is, to define with precision the moral character of every act, every thought, every imagination that has relation to the moral law, and it will be seen whether probabilism must not have a place in its system.

CASUS BELLI, the material grounds which justify (or are alleged by one of the parties concerned to justify) a declaration of war (q.v.). The casus belli is not seldom a very trifling one, and does not necessarily indicate the real causa belli or cause of the war.

CASWELL, Richard, American lawyer: b. Maryland, 3 Aug. 1729; d. Fayetteville, N. C., 20 Nov. 1789. He removed to North Carolina in 1746; practised law and was a member of the colonial assembly (1756-70). He was a delegate to the Continental Congress 1774-75; was president of the Provincial Congress which framed the State constitution (1776), and 1st governor of the State 1775-79; re-elected 178487; comptroller-general of the State 1782-84; was also a delegate to the convention which framed the Federal constitution in 1787. He was major-general of the Newbern district in the Revolution.

CAT, a predatory animal of the family Felida (q.v., for physical characteristics). All

feline animals are "cats" in the broader sense; but in the more restricted and common usage the name refers to the smaller, long-tailed, typical members of the genus Felis. The type is the wildcat (F. catus) of Europe and western Asia, but now extinct in Great Britain, and very rare except in the wilder forests of Germany, Austria and eastward. It is somewhat larger and of stouter build than the domestic cat; its body is yellowish gray, with a dark line along the back, and many darkish stripes on the sides and across the legs; its tail, of moderate length, is ringed and tipped with black; and the soles of the feet are black. It is a fierce animal, preying upon anything it is able to overcome, goes abroad chiefly at night, and makes its lair in hollow trees and crannies among rocks, and is almost untamable. This brief description of habits will answer for most of the other cats to be mentioned, varying with their diverse habitats; but some of the others have shown themselves far more amenable to domestication. It should be noted that the American "wildcat" is not this species, but a very different one the short-tailed lynx (q.v.).

Mivart enumerates in his monograph 36 species of these smaller cats, but some of them are probably mere varieties of others; and we can here mention only a few of the better known ones, larger descriptions of which may be found under their names. The most important one is the Egyptian or Caffre cat (F. libyca), the main source of our household pets, described in the article CATS, DOMESTIC. Another important African species is the widely distributed serval (q.v.) whose fur is valuable. A reddish-brown species, called the goldenhaired (F. rutila), and two or three others, little known, inhabited the West African forests. Asia has many varieties of cats, some of which are of large size. Thus the spotted cat (F. tristis) of the interior of China has a body nearly three feet long; and nearly as big is the handsome, spotted and striped fishing cat (q.v.) of eastern India and the Malayan Peninsula. Others of note are the leopard cat (q.v.) of Bengal and eastward; the common Indian jungle cat or chaus (q.v.); the little rusty-gray jungle cat (F. rubiginosus), which is the smallest of its tribe; the Manul of northeastern Asia; the flat-headed Malayan cat (F. planiceps), which is uniformly brown in hue; the marbled cat (F. marmorata), richly ornamented with wavy, irregular lines and blotches of color, and the bay or golden cat (F. aurata) of northern India, Malaya and the East Indies. This last animal is of special interest as it is believed to be the parent stock of the Siamese domestic cat, which was formerly reserved for royalty alone. Its fur is pale golden-chestnut in color, becoming bay along the back; the throat and under parts are white, while the face is strikingly ornamented with stripes of black, white and orange.

America has several species of wildcats besides the large jaguar (q.v.) and the puma or cougar (q.v.); those of North America are more properly defined as lynxes (see Lynx), but Central and South America have several typical felines. Of these the ocelot, the margay, the eyra and the jaguarondi, are described elsewhere under their names. A very distinctive and well-known species of the plains' region south of Brazil is known as grass cat,

pajero and pampas or grass cat (q.v.). See CHEETA, FELIDE; LYNX.

Bibliography.- Eliot, Monograph of the Felidæ (folio, colored plates, London 1878); Jerdon, Mammals of British India' (London 1865); Anderson, Zoology of Egypt' (London 1902); Mivart, The Cat' (New York 1892); Hamilton, E., The Wildcat of Europe' (London 1896); Hamilton, J. S., Animal Life in Africa (New York 1912) and Cassell's, the Royal and the Standard Natural Histories. ERNEST INGERSOLL.

CAT, Domestic, The. The influence of the domestic cat upon American civilization has received less consideration than it deserves, for a great deal of the advance of agriculture as well as of the spreading out over the vast woodland and prairies has been made possible by this much abused and misunderstood animal. How much food cats have saved, how much property they have guarded from destruction, what plagues of vermin they have kept in check, from the time America was first settled, it is impossible to compute. But for their sleepless vigilance the large cities would quickly be overrun with rats and mice.

The government appropriates money every year for the maintenance of cats in the postoffices and other public buildings of the larger cities, in order to keep down the vermin that would gnaw holes in mail-sacks and destroy public records and other property. It is recognized in the national printing office of France, where vast quantities of paper are stored, and where an army of cats is retained to keep the mice in check. In Vienna it is regarded as a part of good municipal government to take care of the cats. The United States government has systematized its cat service in public institutions, and in Pittsburgh a certain strain has been bred to live in cold storage houses, and is developing characteristics peculiar to this kind of life. In warehouses, corn-cribs, barns, mills and wherever grain or food is stored, cats must be kept. But to be effective, they must be taken care of, for well-fed cats are the best mousers.

Origin and History of the House Cat.Formerly it was carelessly thought that our house cats were simply the progeny of tamed pairs of the European wildcat; but anatomy denied the probability of this, and historical investigation showed that they came from another source. This source is the North-African "gloved" or "Caffre" cat (Felis libyca), which, as historical evidence, including innumerable mummies, shows, was domesticated by the Egyptians before the time of the oldest monuments of their civilization. Moreover, the characteristic specific markings of the caffre cat (still wild as well as tame in the Nile Valley) reappear unmistakably in our common house cats, in spite of the fact that interbreeding with other species, and various local races, has intervened. A well-marked variety of this cat was to be found anciently, and now, in Syria and eastward, known as the Mediterranean cat. It is established that many centuries before the Christian era the Egyptians, Cretans, Phoenicians and other men of the Levant were constantly voyaging all over the Mediterranean Sea, and founding trading-posts on both its shores, where finally arose and spread the extensive civilizations of Greece and