lancets (or knives) and cups. The laws relating to doctors in the code of Hammurabi give a hint of what was being done to combat disease and deformity. The scientific treatment of disease may be said to begin with the labors of Hippocrates, B.C. 460-377. By his researches and discoveries in anatomy and physiology, made possible by the opportunity for the vivisection of criminals granted him by the king of Egypt, Herophilus, c. B.C. 300, laid the foundation for surgery and a more scientific medicine.

Religion. Religion has played its part in helping and hindering and shaping civilization. The discovery at Le Moustier of the skeleton of a youth belonging to the Neanderthal race, C. B.C. 40000, with indications that a food offering had been made at his burial, is taken by some to show that at this early date man had some sort of belief in immortality. Apart from this instance of doubtful significance there are no other hints of religion until late Aurignacian times, c. B.C. 20000. Belonging to this period and widely scattered throughout Europe have been found statuettes of limestone and soap. stone and plastic models of the female figure. These statuettes, usually about four and a half inches high, are believed to be household gods of these primitive folk and were carried with them in their wanderings as was done by the Hebrews some 19,000 years later (Gen. xxxi, 19). Of religion as organized around the altar or systematized into ritual, there is little evidence from prehistoric times. The belief in spirit survival which plainly prevailed among the prehistoric peoples influenced the habits of men and women. By about B.C. 8000 kings and chiefs were buried with considerable pomp and ceremonial, and whether for the purpose of appeasing the spirits of the departed or recalling to mind the virtues and worthy deeds of the dead we do not know, but it became the custom for the people to gather regularly at the tombs and hold high festival. Such festivities drew the bonds of fraternity a little tighter, the sense of community interest was quickened, and the friendly rivalry in the sports of the occasion put a little finer spirit into human relationships.

When man steps out into the increasing light of history, religion is conspicuous in his activities. He worships gods which are usually fearful and many, and believes that these gods cause all things to happen. Man does not control himself but the gods control him. It is difficult to estimate the influence on a person's character which must have been wrought by the belief that the gods watched him; that what he did either pleased or angered the gods. The whole political structure of the world at and since that early time has been greatly affected by the close association of temple and palace, ruler and priest, and the inevitable rise of the idea of the sanctity of the person of the king and the infallibility of his commands. King Gudea of Lagash, c. B.C. 2400, was deified and worshipped and the Egyptian kings of the fifth dynasty, c. B.C. 3500, claimed descent from the Sun god Ra. The choice of Saul as king, I Sam. x, 1, is another instance. Religion influenced architecture. It created the ziggurat, most conspicuous in Babylonian architecture; it fashioned the pyramids of Egypt and its great temples; the famous Greek temples and the development of art and sculpture are but the

outward expression of the religious impulse and ideas. The belief that the gods could be influenced or their will learned by mysterious rites performed by specially equipped persons created the priesthood and gave it a great control of human affairs, making the priesthood a large factor in the process of civilization. The idea of deity as law-giver also profoundly affected human conduct. It gave to the crudely civilized man of c. B.C. 3000 a reason for obedience to law more powerful than any that had yet pressed upon him. Hammurabi is pictured, C. B.C. 2200, as receiving the law from Shamash, the god of law and justice. A similar origin is given to the Mosaic law. It is the deity that demands a certain kind of conduct and punishes the contrary. It was a momentous thing for civilization when, as in Amos, B.C. 750, the deity denounces hard-heartedness, greed, oppression, corruption, and the high value in the other world of good deeds and kindness here, as pictured in the Egyptian Book of the Dead about B.C. 3000, must have awakened a sense of the eternal importance of right living. The civilizing value of the idea of a God as a God of Righteousness proclaimed by the Hebrew prophets has even yet not been fully realized, and when under Josiah social justice was made virtually a religion, religion was destined to play a greater part in lifting civilization to higher levels.

Morals. Closely bound up with religion are the moral principles which have appeared from time to time. However much civilization has always depended on material progress for its advancement it is something very much more than that. Civilization is nothing less than "the humanization of man in society." No matter how learned, or clever or powerful, a man is not civilized unless he is in the best sense human. It was an epoch in the progress of man when Urukagina B.C. 2800 swept the whole army of political and priestly officials from office because they were guilty of taking bribes, thwarting justice and imposing exorbitant taxes. The high moral obligations which the Hebrew prophets insisted publicly that the people must meet, the rising protest against inhumanity in Greece, are simply so many added forces to the movement toward the "humanization of man in society." The lack of moral strength has usually led to the downfall of the peoples that have been outwardly most civilized.

Culture. About B.C. 7000 the written word becomes a fact-only a sign perhaps to indicate ownership, or a picture conveying some sort of information. Having once hit on the plan of conveying information by pictures, the pictures speedily became formalized, and still simpler forms of writing were devised.

This invention gave to life practically a new beginning. Man came to have a past as real as the present. A sense of permanence and continuity was given to life. All man's thoughts were widened. It opened the way out of the terrible ignorance which had held him down for nearly half a million years. From recording names and transactions and events man soon set to recording his thoughts, his speculations, and this set others thinking and speculating on many things. Man began to enjoy an intellectual life. There grew up a literature as for example the Precepts of Ptah-hotep in Egypt, C. B.C. 3900, by which the thoughts and achieve

ments of one generation were passed on to the generations to come, thus making progress a surer thing. The value of the invention of writing is seen in the fact that when a man signed his name or his mark to a contract (B.C. 3000 and earlier most likely), he was held in the grip of an obligation to do what he had agreed. A new accuracy and truthfulness and honesty entered of necessity into human dealings. With the growth of commerce and politics and religion there had to be persons to keep books in the commercial houses; the kings needed scribes to make record of the king's doings; the making and administration of laws must needs have men who could write down the laws and the judgments of the courts; the temples must have men able to chronicle religious matters, and so men had to be trained for these semi-intellectual jobs. We can hardly speak of the existence of schools and yet whatever the limitations of the training given men to fill these semi-intellectual positions the effect must have been to increase the number of those who could read and write and create a desire on the part of an increasing number to be able to read and write. The school idea as we understand it is met with in Greece before B.C. 500. When old enough the boys were sent to a school conducted by some poor citizen, or an old soldier or a foreigner. Music and writing were taught, and what perhaps was of greater importance the boys learned many passages from the old poets. Of inestimable importance in the story of civilization is the school of Athens, where Socrates, Plato, Zeno and Aristotle set forth political and social and philosophical ideas which exercised marked influence upon the thought and character of the persons then living and all generations since. The rise of the gymnasium, B.C. 300 to B.C. 200, where the youth attended lectures on rhetoric, science, philosophy and mathematics was notable step toward creating and setting the fashion for an educated citizenship. Not least influential of the pre-Christian scholastic institutions was the school of intellectuals gathered in Alexandria, B.C. 300 and after. Men came hither from all civilized countries to listen to lectures containing the latest thought in astronomy, physics, anatomy, medicine, grammar and religion. Here the Septuagint version of the Old Testament was compiled.

a

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The founding of libraries is_an_item_that deserves place in this summary. Copies of laws, of religious rituals, of medical prescriptions, commercial papers, and treaties between nations multiplied and were found in considerable numbers in all important cities of the ancient world. But so far as known Assurbanipal, B.C. 668-626, grandson of Sennacherib, was the first to make a collection of the literature of the people and arrange it so that it could be used and was designed to be used. Of much greater importance was the founding of the library at Alexandria by Ptolemy, B.C. 304. The library was the creation of the gifted poet and philosopher Callimachus who originated the name "book" and created the science of publishing correct editions of old works. Here too began the making of dictionaries.

Bibliography. The material for the history of civilization is exceedingly voluminous. All histories of ancient peoples contain matter for this purpose. For those who wish to get at

the origins, the series of British Museum guides "The Antiquities of the Stone Age," "The Bronze Age," "The Early Iron Age," "The Egyptian Collections," "Babylonian and Assyrian Collections" are authoritative; for the prehistoric period, Osborn, H. F., Men of the Old Stone Age'; Joly, N., Man Before Metals'; for the historic, Jastrow, M., Jr., The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria'; Boscawen, W. St. C., The First of Empires'; Breasted, J. H., 'Ancient Times'; Petrie, W. M. F., History of Egypt'; Morgan, L. H., 'Ancient Society'; Tylor, Primitive Culture'; for Greece, Botsford, G. W., and Sihler, E. G., 'Hellenic Civilization.'

CHARLES GRAVES,

Chaplain, New York State Assembly. CIVILIZATION, An Introduction to the History of, a noted work by Henry Thomas Buckle, an Englishman, published 1857-61. Although the progress of science has uncovered facts that prove the weakness of an occasional principle in the 'History of Civilization, the work remains one of the greatest contributions of modern times to the new aspect of history, as a human document, to be read by the light of scientific discovery. No book of its time was more influential in turning the direction of men's thoughts to the phenomena of social and political science.

CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE, a history, by François Guizot. In this work Guizot begins with the fall of the Roman Empire, and ends with the opening of the French Revolution. Although he analyzes all the important facts of history between the great landmark of 476 and the convocation of the States-General in 1789, he is far more anxious, to grasp their import than to give a vivid relation of them; and, therefore, facts in themselves play but a small part in his exposition. They are simply a help in his effort to discover the great laws that direct the evolution of humanity, and to show its development in the individual and in society. His investigations are limited to purely social development, and he does not touch upon the intellectual side of the question.

CIVITÁ-DI-PENNE, che'-vę tä dē pěn'nā, Italy (the ancient Pinna-Vestina), a small town in the province of Teramo, Naples, built on two hills, 23 miles southeast of the city of Teramo. It was formerly a place of importance. The Normans, under Roger I, made it the capital of their kingdom. It is a bishop's see. Pop. 4,337.

CIVITÁ-VECCHIA, věk'kë-ä. See CITTÀ

VECCHIA.

CIVITALI, Matteo, che-vē-tä'lē, Tuscan sculptor and architect: b. Lucca, 5 June 1435; d. 12 Oct. 1501. He followed the occupation of a barber until about 1470, and evidently found some time to study sculpture. In 1495 he removed to Carrara, the site of the famous marble quarries. His first important work was the mausoleum erected in the cathedral at Lucca to Pietro de Noceto, secretary to Pope Nicholas V. His greatest works are, in the same church, six statues of white marble representing personages of the Old Testament; a bust of the humanist, Pietro di Avenza; two beautiful angels belonging to the former Altar of the Sacrament, the shrine of which is in the

South Kensington Museum, London; the tomb of his friend and patron, Domenico Bertini, a miniature octagon temple; the statue of Saint Sebastian; the altar of Saint Regulus, and the pulpit of the cathedral. Among his architectural works is the Bernardini palace at Lucca, of simple style, and also the little temple which contains the miraculous crucifix in the church of San Martino. He also erected a monument to Saint Romanus in the church of San Romano. The Uffizi Gallery at Florence contains Civitali's statue of Faith,' and another of the Saviour. The Metropolitan Museum of New York contains a charming painted terracotta Angel of Annunciation. His last surviving work is the group of statues in the chapel of Saint John the Baptist in the cathedral of Genoa, in the style of the high Renaissance. As an architect and engineer, he constructed a bridge near Lucca and the fortifications of his native town. He is best classed with the Florentine School, but his style is simple and more rugged and sincere. Consult monographs by Yriati; Roselli (1891); Cappellette (1892); Volpi (1893).

CLAAR, klär, Emil, German stage director: b. Lemberg 1842. He was at first an actor making his début at the Burg Theatre, Vienna. Later he appeared at Gratz, Innsbruck and Berlin. In 1864-70 he was stage manager of the Stadt Theatre, Leipzig, and in 1870-71 of the Court Theatre, Weimar. From 1879 to 1900 he was director successively of two large houses at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and after 1900 manager of the Schauspielhaus there. His published works include 'Gedichte) (1868); 'Neue Gedichte' (1894); 'Weltliche Legenden' (1898); Samson und Delila' (1872); (Shelley,' a tragedy (1876); Die Schwesterin' (1892); 'Königsleid (1895).

was

CLACKMANNAN, Scotland, the county town of Clackmannanshire, nine miles east of Stirling, on the Forth. Coal, iron and limestone are found nearby. Close to the town are the ruins of a castle of the Bruces. Pop. 2,203.

CLACKMANNANSHIRE, Scotland, the smallest county, being only about nine miles long, seven wide and comprising an area of about 34,927 acres or 55 square miles. Its greatest length is 10 miles from north to south, and is nine miles broad from east to west. It lies on the north side of the Forth, by which it is bounded southwest. On all the other sides it is enclosed by the counties of Perth, Fife and Stirling. The north border of the country is occupied by the Ochil Hills, but the other portions are comparatively level, and in general are exceedingly fertile, yielding large crops of oats, barley, wheat, turnips and other green crops. The minerals are valuable, especially coal, which abounds. There are ironworks, breweries and distilleries, woolen manufactures, tanning, glassworks, etc. Pop. 31,121, or 570 to the square mile. The county unites with Kinrossshire in sending a member to Parliament. The principal towns are Alloa (the largest, and famous for yarns), Alva, Tillicoultry, Dollar and Clackmannan; the last is the county town. It is rather poorly built, but has an interesting old tower and an old market-cross.

CLACTON-ON-SEA, England, a popular watering-place on the coast of Essex, 19 miles

southeast of Colchester by rail, with admirable facilities for sea-bathing, and of easy access from London both by rail and steamboat. It stands on cliffs over 40 feet high. The church of Great Clacton, one and a half miles distant, dates partly from Norman times. Pop. 9,777.

CLADEL, Léon, klä-děl, French romancist: b. Montauban, 13 March 1835; d. 1902. He rose suddenly into prominence with his story, 'Les martyrs ridicules' (1862), a satirical description of the lower walks of literature in Paris. This first success was repeated with the later novels La Bouscassié (1869); 'Six morceaux de littérature'; a series, Urbains et ruraux, Une Maudite,' for which he suffered four weeks' imprisonment, and many others.

CLADIUM, klā’dĭ-ŭm, a genus of plants of the sedge family (Cyperacea), with about 30 species natives of tropical or temperate climes. They are akin to the Rynchosporas, the spikelets oblong or fusiform, few-flowered, variously clustered. Scales imbricated all around, the lower empty, the middle ones mostly subtending imperfect flowers, the upper usually fertile. It has no perianth and two or three stamens. Its style is cleft, deciduous from the summit of the achene, its branches sometimes parted. The achene is ovoid or globose, smooth or longitudinally striate. There are only three species found in America, of which the most common is the twig-rush (C. mariscoides), found in marshes from Minnesota eastward to Nova Scotia and southward to Florida. This plant is very common in certain of the fenny districts of England, where it is used for thatching. It flourishes from July to September.

CLADOCERA. See DAPHNIA.

CLADRASTIS, a small leguminous tree resembling the locust, with two species, one in Manchuria, the other (C. lutea) in eastern United States. It is called yellow wood, yellow ash, yellow locust and fustic in various places. The American or Kentucky yellow-wood is a species with smooth bark, and sometimes grows above 50 feet in the rich soils of Kentucky and Tennessee. The wood, which weighs about 40 pounds to the cubic foot, is strong and hard, and of a bright yellow color. It produces a dye of considerable commercial value, its bark having cathartic properties.

CLAFLIN, Horace Brigham, American merchant: b. Milford, Mass., 18 Dec. 1811; d. Fordham, N. Y., 14 Nov. 1885. He received a common school education, worked in his father's store until he was of age, when he went to Worcester, Mass., and in partnership with his brother-in-law, engaged in the dry goods business on a large scale. In 1843 he established in New York the firm of Bulkley & Claflin, importers and jobbers of dry goods; in 1851 it became Claflin, Mellin & Company, and in 1864 H. B. Claflin & Company, by which it is best known. Mr. Claflin conducted an enormous business extending all over the country, and since 1864 it has been the largest mercantile business in the United States, its sales in a single year having reached $72,000,000. Its financial strength, and the money market's firm confidence in Mr. Claflin's methods and integrity, enabled the firm to pass safely through most of the financial crises of the last 40 years. In 1861 and in 1873 it had to ask for slight ex

tensions of time in which to settle accounts, but all were paid with interest before maturity. In 1864 Mr. Mellin retired from the firm and the name became H. B. Claflin & Company. Mr. Claflin was a man of domestic tastes, fond of books and horses, active in charitable institutions, and an intimate friend of Henry Ward Beecher.

CLAFLIN, John, American merchant: b. Brooklyn, 24 July 1850. He was graduated at the College of the City of New York in 1869 and in 1869-70 traveled in Europe and the East. He entered the dry goods business with his father's firm, H. B. Claflin & Company 1870, and in 1873 became a member of the firm. In 1890 he organized the H. B. Claflin Company and in 1909 organized the United Dry Goods Companies. He was president of both organizations until 1914, when he retired. He has served as trustee of many financial and charitable corporations.

CLAFLIN, William, American merchant and statesman: b. Milford, Mass., 6 March 1816; d. 5 Jan. 1905. He was educated in the public schools and at Brown University. For many years he was engaged in the shoe and leather business in Saint Louis, Mo., but later settled in Boston, Mass. He was elected to the State house of representatives 1849-53; to the senate 1860 and 1861; was a member of the Republican National Committee 1864-72; lieutenantgovernor of Massachusetts 1866-68; and governor 1869-71. From 1877 to 1881 he was a Republican member of Congress. He was vicepresident of Boston University 1869-72 and its president from 1872. The degree of LL.D. was conferred on him by Harvard and Wesleyan universities.

CLAGHORN, Kate Holladay, American writer: b. Aurora, Ill., 12 Dec. 1863. She was educated at Bryn Mawr College, and has been engaged in research work for the United States Industrial Commission, was registrar of records 1906-12; is connected with the New York Tenement House Department and the New York School of Philanthropy since 1912; is a member of advisory council of the Society for the Protection of Italian Immigrants. Besides contributions to periodicals, she has published 'College Training for Women (1897).

CLAIBORNE, or CLAYBORNE, William, American colonial official: b. Westmoreland, England, about 1589; d. about 1676. He went to Virginia as surveyor in 1621 and four years later became secretary of state of the colony. In 1627-28 he explored Chesapeake Bay, in 1631 founded a trading post on Kent Island. This post flourished and in time sent a representative to the general assembly of Virginia. Kent Island was included in the grant to George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore, whom Clairborne had previously opposed bitterly in London. He took up arms to enforce his claim to Kent Island but was soon driven off. Maryland and Virginia continued to wrangle about it until 1776. When Virginia and Maryland decided in favor of Charles II, Claiborne sought and obtained a place on the Cromwellian commission appointed to reduce them to submission. When Richard Bennett became governor of Virginia under the new régime Claiborne was made secretary of state. Maryland all Catholics were removed from of

In

fice, which act caused general discontent and friction until 1658, when Lord Baltimore again came into possession of the province. After the Restoration Claiborne lost all influence at court and died in obscurity many years later. W. H. Carpenter's novel, Claiborne the Rebel' (1845) is based on his career. (See VIRGINIA -HISTORY). Consult Mereness, Maryland as a Proprietary Province (New York 1901); Claiborne, J. H., William Claiborne of Virginia' (1917).

CLAIBORNE, William Charles Cole, American politician: b. Sussex County, Va., 1775; d. New Orleans, La., 23 Nov. 1817. He received a good education, studied law at William and Mary College and engaged in its practice in Nashville, Tenn. He assisted in forming the constitution of Tennessee, and represented that State in Congress 1797-1801. În 1801 he was appointed governor of Mississippi Territory, and in 1804 of the territory of Orleans, that part of the Louisiana purchase lying south of the territory of Mississippi and of the 33d parallel. When Louisiana became a State and adopted its constitution, he was elected governor 1812-16. During the War of 1812, he assisted with Jackson in driving off the British at New Orleans. He was later elected United States senator, but died before taking his seat in that body.

CLAIBORNE STAGE, in American geology, the rocks, principally shales and limestones, laid down in Middle Eocene time along the Carolinas and the Gulf States and around an arm of the sea that reached northward_to the present mouth of the Ohio River. See EOCENE SERIES; TERTIARY SYSTEM.

CLAIM, a challenge of ownership of a thing which is wrongfully withheld from the possession of the claimant. The assertion of liability of some one, to the party making it, to do some service or pay a sum of money. The possession of a settler upon lands owned by a government which is not used for any particular purpose, and from which no benefit is derived. When a new section of country is opened up, the government gives to each settler a certain amount of land on condition that he will live there, and improve and cultivate the soil for a definite time. The land taken is called a claim, and the settler receives an absolute title to the property when the conditions have been complied with. The ground must be staked out so that the particular claim may be identified. Mining claims are of this nature. Generally it is required that they be staked out, that a description of the claim be filed and that a certain amount of work be done within a specified time. These claims are considered personal property until the conditions are complied with, and are subject to sale and transfer, it being necessary for all but the original settler to be able to show how and through whom he acquired title, in order to get a complete and absolute title from the government, as it is necessary to show that the land has been used, and in what manner, for a definite length of time, before the settler acquires his title from the government.

There are claims for labor and wages by mechanics for work done, by materialmen for material furnished or by pilots for pilotage. When filed of record these claims become liens

against the property which has been benefited by the work, material or care bestowed upon it. Claims, when filed in the name of a municipal corporation for improvements, such as opening or widening a street, laying sewers or any municipal improvement, are liens against the property benefited.

CLAIMS, Court of. See COURTS.

CLAIRAC, klā'răk', France, a town in department Lot-et-Garonne, on the Lot, 16 miles northwest of Agen. It was built about an abbey in the 8th century. It was the first town in the south of France to declare in favor of the Reformation, and was the scene of many conflicts between the Roman Catholics and Huguenots. It has a large trade in white wines. Théophile Viaud was born here in 1626. Pop. 2,388.

CLAIRAUT, klā-rō, Alexis Claude, French mathematician: b. Paris, 13 May 1713; d. there, 17 May 1765. In his 11th year he composed a treatise on the four curves of the third order, which, with his subsequent Recherches sur les courbes à double courbure) (1731), procured him a seat in the Academy at the age of 18. He accompanied Maupertuis to Lapland, to assist in measuring an arc of the meridian, and obtained the materials for his work (Traité de la figure de la terre' (1743 and 1808), in which he proved, contrary to the opinion of Cassini, the flattening of the earth toward the poles. In the field of mathematics, Clairaut studied curves of the third order, tortuous curves and projections, and was the first to find the singular solution of a differential equation of the first degree in X and Y. The equation used by Clairaut, often called Clairaut's form, is y=px+f(p) in which p

dy In physics, he dx explained capillary action by demonstrating the necessity of considering the attraction between the parts of the fluid itself; computed the change in gravity at a high altitude, and so fully demonstrated the figure of the earth that little essentially new has since been added. In 1752 he published his "Théorie de la lune (1752 and 1765), and in 1759 calculated the return of Halley's comet. Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote 'Eléments de géométrie (1741 and 1765); Eléments d'algèbre' (1746 and 1760); Théorie du mouvement des comètes (1760). A brother, who died at the age of 12, published in his ninth year a treatise entitled 'Divers Quadratures of Circular Elliptics.'

CLAIRIN, klä-răn, George Jules Victor, French portrait painter: b. Paris, 11 Sept. 1843. He studied in Paris under Picot and Pils, and obtained a second class medal at the Paris Exposition in 1889, and the Legion of Honor medal in 1888. Besides portraits he has painted several brilliant scenes from Spanish history. His paintings are fine in color, effective in composition and have always aroused wide interest. Among them are The Benediction of the Swords'; 'Allah! Allah!; The Two Hostile Tribes'; 'After the Victory); The Massacre of the Abencerrages'; 'A Moorish Sentinel (Metropolitan Museum, New York); Entering the Harem' (Walters Gallery, Baltimore). His portraits include those of Mounet-Sully as Hamlet (1889), Sarah Bernhardt and Madame

Krauss. He also executed a number of effective decorative paintings in the Paris Opera, the Bourse and in the Salle-des-Jeux at Monte Carlo.

CLAIRVAUX, klár-võ' (clara vallis, lightsome vale), a village of northeast France, on the river Aube, 40 miles southeast of Troyes, noted as the site of the celebrated abbey of Cistercian monks, founded in 1115 by Saint Bernard, who was its abbot till his death in 1153. It was a vast establishment, comprising within its enclosure a large population both of monks professed, lay brothers, laborers and artisans employed in various industries. There was a large and magnificent church; four cloisters surrounded by buildings for housing the monks, conversi or lay brothers, the novices and the superannuated members of the order; the abbots' hall with the guest house adjoining it, the kitchen, refectory, infirmary, scriptorium, etc.; all these were grouped in one portion of the monastic domain. In another portion were the fish tanks, the wine-press, slaughter-house, barns and stables, saw-mill, grist-mill, oil-mill, tannery, tile works, etc., producing all necessary supplies for the use of the inmates. At the Revolution the monks were turned out and the lands and buildings, except the church which was destroyed by fire, occupied for public uses; the buildings are now used as a penitentiary and workhouse.

CLAIRVOYANCE (Lat. clarus, clear, + videre, to see), defined as the power of perceiving without the use of the organ of vision or under conditions in which the organ of vision with its natural powers alone would be useless. It comprises the sight of things past, present or future. Various methods of clairvoyance are recounted; by direct vision of things at a distance (opaque substances being no hindrance); by looking into a black surface; by looking into water, into a crystal, etc.; or by laying the object to be described on the forehead or chest of the clairvoyant; but clairvoyants now usually represent the cerebral region as the seat of illumination. From remote antiquity the possession of such powers by favored individuals has been believed. In the Old Testament (2 Kings vi, 15-17) is an account of the opening of the inner vision in the case of the servant of Elisha in answer to the prayer of the prophet.

Clairvoyant powers were claimed for the Pythia at Delphi. Apollonius of Tyana and Diodorus Siculus testify to the clairvoyance of the Indian sages. Macrobius gives an instance of clairvoyance on the part of the oracle of the Heliopolitan god when consulted by the Emperor Trajan. Tertullian speaks of a seeress who could prophesy and prescribe for the sick. Clairvoyance was known among the nations of antiquity, and is still generally accepted as an undoubted fact among Eastern nations. As instances of clairvoyants in later times may be mentioned Jacob Böhme (1575-1624) and Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772), the Swedish scientist and founder of the religious body called "The Church of the New Jerusalem."

The phenomena of clairvoyance have been carefully observed. The clairvoyant state seems to be intimately connected with the mesmeric, the somnambulistic and the so-called "biological." Mesmeric somnambulism and clairvoy