a surplus of $2,447,520.61; and there are many other mutual companies. The 6 life insurance companies are all in Hartford, and reported, in 1916, aggregate assets of $343,203,670.66. There were also 6 indemnity companies and 6 miscellaneous insurance companies. Of the many fraternal benefit societies, 8 reported in 1910 assets amounting to $107,649,937.50.

Religion. The ecclesiastical history of Connecticut would fill a large volume, and is an interesting study of the development of religion in this country. It is enough to say that, at the beginning, the colony stood unique as a compromise between the rigid ecclesiasticism of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies, and the religious liberty which Roger Williams was, at the time, establishing in Rhode Island. Unique though it was, it can be called a theocracy only at the beginning, for the State was then the Congregational Church, pure and simple, and though others than church members could vote, they were obliged by the early code to vote taxes for the support of the church. The process of emancipation from these theocratic conditions was slow, and did not reach perfection until the adoption of the new Constitution in 1818. Through this period of nearly two centuries there were executions for witchcraft at Stratford in 1651; at Fairfield in 1653; and possibly at Windsor in March 1646 or 1647, if the journal of John Winthrop is to be taken as an authority; and in the theological tenets which were adopted from time to time under direction of the general court and otherwise, we pass through a maze of solemn discussions of the Half-way Covenant, the Cambridge Platform, the Saybrook Platform, with the later New Lights and Old Lights arrayed against one another as Separatists and Conservatists. Legislation exempting the Church of England from taxation for support of the Congregational Church was had in 1727, and in 1729 was extended to cover cases of the Baptists and Quakers. In 1791, the right of incorporation was allowed, under certain restrictions, to all religious bodies. The first Baptist elder was ordained at New London in 1726, but the sect did not gain largely until the beginning of the 19th century. The Protestant Episcopal Church was not established under a regularly ordained bishop until after 1784, although it had made beginnings before that time, but was practically exterminated during the Revolution, owing to the Toryism of its clergy. In 1789, the first Methodist Episcopal church in the State was established at Stratford. The first Roman Catholic church in Connecticut was established in 1830, and in 1843 the diocese of Hartford, embracing the entire State, was established.

The statistics of religious denominations are but partially available, only a few of the denominations publishing complete reports. The Protestant denominations are divided into many sects. The number of ordained ministers is given as follows: Advent, 23; African M. E. Zion, 15; Baptist, 209; Catholic Apostolic, 5; Congregational, 497; English Lutheran, 17; German Lutheran, 19; Swedish Lutheran, 17; Hebrew, 8; Methodist Episcopal, 177; Presbyterian, 14; Episcopal, 194; Roman Catholic, 432; Unitarian, 5; Universalist, 10.

Charitable Institutions.-The educational institutions which are partly or wholly

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sectarian in 'character will be mentioned in speaking of the general subject of education. The Board of Charities reported, in 1914, as in successful operation, 26 hospitals, public and private; 6 sanatoria for tubercular patients; 2 State hospitals for the insane; 12 private asylums for the insane; 1 colony for epileptics; 1 school for imbeciles; 2 schools for the deaf; 1 school for the blind; 2 homes for old soldiers; 8 county temporary homes for children; 67 almshouses; 20 private homes for old people; 19 private homes and asylums for children; and recent additions to the list have been made. Of these, the Roman Catholic Church supports 3 orphan asylums, 5 hospitals, 2 homes for aged poor, and the Swedish Congregational Association largely supports one orphanage. Of the almshouses, 61 are owned by the towns or cities in which they are situated, and 6 are owned and managed by private individuals, 101 towns caring for their poor in their own houses or in families. The Hartford Retreat for the Insane, the third in age in the United States, having been opened in 1821, holds a unique position, because, although always a private institution, it was long the only place in which State patients could be received; and some such are still committed to it each year.

Penal and Reformatory Institutions. There are 1 State prison; 10 county jails; 1 State reformatory for male delinquents between 16 and 25; 1 school for boys; 1 industrial school for girls; 3 homes for young women offenders, of which last the Roman Catholic Church supports one. The State Reformatory, opened in 1913, is doing a very satisfactory work, and is an important addition to the correctional work of the State. The total expense to the State for the care of delinquents, defectives and dependents in 1914 was $1,946,517.92.

Education. The educational system of Connecticut was planted almost literally with the first corn that was planted by the early settlers. From the small beginnings in the few towns, the present system of public schools has been evolved, aided materially in 1795 by the proceeds of the Western Reserve Lands, now in the State of Ohio, which were sold in order to establish a school fund. The lands, to the extent of about 3,500,000 acres, were granted to Connecticut by the United States in 1786 as a tacit compensation for her loss of the Wyoming territory by a decree of 1782. About 500,000 acres were granted by Connecticut to those within her jurisdiction who had suffered from the incursions of the British during the Revolution, and the remaining 3,000,000 acres were sold for the establishment of a school fund. That fund remains intact to the present day, and amounted, in October 1916, to $2,008,590.79, yielding an income of $116,850.55 for that year, and providing 43 cents of the $2.25 per child, distributed to the schools on the basis of enumeration. Another fund, known as the town deposit fund, was Connecticut's share of the apportionment from the surplus of the United States Treasury in 1837, and was given by the State to the towns. Under the law of 1859, the entire income of this fund was to be used for education; but it has become so merged in the general treasuries of the towns that it scarcely has a separate existence. Beyond this State support, the common school system depends on taxation in vari

ous towns and school districts to meet expense. By a recent decision of the courts, a school district may, in lieu of the payment made by the State of $2.25 per year for each enumerated school child, receive from the town the actual expense of conducting the schools for 188 days in the year.

Education is compulsory, within the limits of 7 and 16 years. The control of the common school system is varied, being by committees, either of towns or of school districts, or by boards of education, the tendency being toward the consolidation of districts in each town. Supervisors have been introduced with good effect, and in increasing numbers. Trade schools, where vocational preparation is given by practical experts in the different trades, are assuming a prominent place in the scheme of public education, and are well equipped. In addition to the common schools, to whose support it contributes, the State now supports four normal training schools for teachers. It also supports and controls an agricultural college and an agricultural experiment station. In 1915 the public school buildings numbered 1,510, employing continuously 6,392 teachers, with many others employed at times. The average daily attendance during 1915 was 175,881. The value of school property was $23,193,194.84; the total expenditure for public schools as reported by towns was $9,590,562.67; the receipts on account of public schools, as reported by towns, was $7,656,423.37; received from loans, $1,949,796.13; indebtedness of towns on account of schools, $8,703,329.31. The expenditure per child registered in 1915 was $23.67; per child in average attendance, $36.87; the increase in cost per child in average attendance in the 10 years preceding 1916 averaged $1 a year.

In addition to the public schools, there are in the State 261 private schools, of which 82 are parochial schools of the Roman Catholic Church, 6 parochial schools of the Lutheran Church, and the rest are non-sectarian, being business colleges, boarding schools and secondary schools. These 261 private schools employ 1,726 teachers and are attended by 52,293 pupils. The higher institutions of learning are all supported by tuition and endowment, or church funds. The principal ones are Yale University, Wesleyan University, Trinity College, the Hartford Seminary Foundation, including Hartford Theological Seminary, School of Religious Pedagogy and Kennedy School of Missions, with other schools to be added; the Berkeley Divinity School, Saint Thomas Catholic Seminary, Saint Joseph Catholic Seminary, and the Connecticut College for Women at New London. Each of these, except the last, has a large library of its own, that of Yale University being the largest in the State with over a million volumes. The Yale Elizabethan Club owns the best collection of Tudor and Stuart drama to which the public has access in this country, The collections, mineralogical, geological and palæontological, of the Peabody Museum of Yale University are of great value, as are the collections of Greek and Etruscan vases, and of Babylonian antiquities, the Jarves gallery of early Italian paintings, the photographs collected by the Yale Peruvian Expeditions and the Steinert collection of musical instruments.

The State Library at Hartford contains a

large and valuable collection of the laws and official documents of other States and the general government; besides which it has accumulated a general collection in which history is prominent; it also contains many rare and original documents, including the charter of 1662. In 1916 there were in the State 218 public libraries.

The principal historical societies are the Connecticut, the New Haven Colony, the New London County, the Middlesex County, the Mattatuck (of Waterbury), Historical societies, and the Bridgeport Scientific and Historical Society.

The growing desire for increasing the artistic sense of the community is shown by the organized efforts in New Haven, Bridgeport, Hartford and other places, for the purpose of developing beauty in their own domains.

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Government. The government of Connecticut has been conducted under two different constitutions, the first of which was adopted in January, 1638-39, and was fortified and protected by the charter of 1662; and the second, which was adopted as the result of a stitutional convention in 1818. This constitution, with its subsequent amendments, forms the organic law of Connecticut at present. Under it the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer, comptroller and members of the general assembly are chosen biennially by the people. Other State officers are appointed either by the governor, sometimes with, and sometimes without, the consent of the senate, or by the general assembly.

The General Assembly is composed of a senate consisting of 35 members, and a house of representatives, consisting of 258 members. One senator is elected from each of the senatorial districts; one representative each from 78 towns, and two each are elected from 90 towns. In 1911 the State was divided into 5 senatorial districts, instead of 4, for electing members of Congress. In 1914, 87 towns voted for no license and 90 for license, one being equally divided. The courts are the Supreme Court of Errors and the Superior Court, the judges serving for terms of eight years; the Court of Common Pleas, and the District Court, for four years, all of these judges being appointed by the general assembly on nomination by the governor. Judges of city, borough and town courts are appointed for terms of two years, by the general assembly. There are in the State 113 probate districts, the judges of which are elected by the people.

Population and Finance. The population of the State, as estimated by the United States census in 1916, was 1,244,497, showing a great increase in recent years, and making it fourth in rank, as to density. Of this population, about two-thirds are native born and one-third foreign born. In 1910, 3.8 per cent of the population was classed as illiterate, being the smallest percentage of any State except Massachusetts with 3.5 per cent of illiterates. The total grand list as computed in October 1916, by the State Board of Assessors, was $1,278,696,735. New Haven, Hartford and Bridgeport supply onehalf of the grand list of the 19 cities. The receipts for the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1916 were $11,532,806.94; the expenses, $8,439,944.59.

Legislation.—In 1916, the State legislature was composed of 11 Democratic and 24 Republican senators; and 60 Democratic and 198 Republican representatives. Recent bills of importance include a Public Utilities Commission, Workmen's Compensation Act; one eliminating a congressman at large; the election of county commissioners by the people; the appointment of judges of the minor courts by the governor

instead of the general assembly; the adoption of uniform laws as to the sales of goods and as to warehouse receipts, recommended by the Conference of Commissioners on United States Laws; bills to prevent infection with tuberculosis and to provide State hospitals for consumptives; to establish a State reformatory; appointing a public service corporation regulation commission; as to uniform bills of lading; establishing a State civil service law; strengthening the corrupt practices law; for a "blue sky law"; regulating the use of airships; taxing woodlands; a general bank incorporation law; creating a State civil service commission; repealing the exemption of charitable bequests from a succession tax; taxing corporations on income rather than on capital. In the presidential election of 1916, the State gave a Republican majority, and elected a Republican governor.

In 1917 under the auspices and direction of Governor Holcomb the State took a foremost place in war preparation and organization. A census of the resources of the State in men and materials was begun early in the year and complete returns were available by December. A home guard was established, numbering 20,000 members, of whom about half were fully equipped. By act of the legislature the governor received far-reaching powers, being authorized to take any steps he might deem necessary due to the emergency of the war. Commerce and manufactures throve after the opening of the war due to the fact that the State contained hundreds of factories which were engaged in the manufacture of war munitions. The legislature of 1919 will consider a constitutional amendment granting suffrage to women.

Bibliography.- Andrews, C. M., 'The River Towns of Connecticut' (Baltimore 1889); Clark, G. L., A History of Connecticut, its Peoples and Institutions' (New York and London 1914); Hollister, G. H., The History of Connecticut from the First Settlement of the Colony to the Adoption of the Present Constitution (2 vols., New Haven 1855); Johnston, A., Connecticut' (in 'American Commonwealths' Series,' Boston, Mass., 1887), contains a bibliography of the State's history to 1886; Loomis, Dwight, and Calhoun, J. Gilert, Judicial and Civil History of Connecticut' (Boston 1895); Mead, N. P., 'Connecticut as a Corporate Colony) (Lancaster 1906); Morgan, Forrest, Connecticut as a Colony and State (4 vols., Hartford 1904); Sanford, E. B., A History of Connecticut' (Hartford 1889); Steiner, B. C., History of Slavery in Connecticut' (Baltimore 1893); Trumbull, Benjamin, A Complete History of Connecticut (2 vols., New London 1898); Trumbull, J. Hammond, 'Memorial History of Hartford County, Connecticut) (2 vols., Boston 1886); Trumbull, J. H., The Colonial Records of Connecticut (Hartford 1859); Norton, The Governors of Connecticut (Hartford 1905); Rice and Gregory, 'Manual of the Geology of Connecticut' (in Bulletin No. 6 of the Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey); 'Reports of the various Executive Departments of the State (Hartford, annually); The Register and Manual of Connecticut' (Hartford annually). For information on the physical geography of the State consult Davis,