system has been extended and honestly and faithfully applied. But the evils of the spoils system still prevail almost without check in the service of the cities and the States throughout the country. The enormous number of places involved are still almost wholly the prizes of party contests. The place-holders, many times more numerous than the present army of the United States, are in greater part enlisted for party rather than for public service. Efficiency, industry and economy in the public work are hard to secure. The suppression of Ivice and the decent administration of the affairs of cities and States are made more difficult.

Clearly it is best that the merit system should be applied to all that portion of the civil service in which the duties are of a business nature and in which the office-holders are not called on to fix the policy of the government. There is no Democratic or Republican or Populist way of being honest and industrious and intelligent which all Americans may not use. To these qualities in their service the people have a right, and no party can claim a monopoly of them. Much remains to be done to complete the work so well begun. The men in all parties who look on public employment, not as a trust, but as the spoils of party victory, resist all advance and seek to undo what has been done. They cannot succeed if the true nature of the merit system is understood, its honesty and fairness, its high utility and its fidelity to the fundamental principle of the free institutions of the American republic. From 1915 on the Civil Service Reform League conducted a vigorous agitation to bring all classes of postmasters into the classified service, all diplomatic secretaries and consular officers to be transferred to the classified service. The League also co-operated by request to ensure efficiency in war service. Consult Roosevelt, Theodore, 'American Ideals (New York 1900); Fish, C. R., "The Civil Service and the Patronage (New York 1905). See EXECUTIVE.

CIVIL WAR IN AMERICA. The number of engagements entered in the government's 'Chronological List of Battles' exceeds 2,200. An alphabetical list of battles compiled at the bureau of pensions, including such minor actions and skirmishes as seemed worthy of incorporation, contains over 6,800 separate affairs. It is therefore clear that, even in a comprehensive narrative of the War, a large number of the lesser engagements must be ignored. Merely to state strength and losses for the battles mentioned would form a lengthy statistical article. For these figures the student is referred to the separate accounts in this work of the various battles herein treated.

The Civil War of 1861-65 was inaugurated by the determination of seven Southern States to withdraw from the Union. (See UNITED STATES CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR; EFFORTS TO SETTLE THE SLAVERY QUESTION). South Carolina led by passing an ordinance of secession 20 Dec. 1860, followed by Mississippi, 9 Jan. 1861; Florida, 10 January; Alabama, 11 January; Georgia, 19 January; Louisiana, 26 January; and Texas, 1 February. On 7 February the Choctaw Nation declared its adherence to the Confederacy. See UNITED STATES-SECESSION; SECESSION IN THE UNITED STATES.

During the autumn of 1860 and the early

spring of 1861 the forts, arsenals, customhouses and other government property in those States, with few exceptions, had been seized by State troops, and large sums were voted for arming the States, Georgia leading in November 1861 by appropriating $1,000,000. Maj. Robert Anderson, a Federal officer, who held Fort Moultrie on the inner line of Charleston harbor, becoming aware of active preparations for capturing that work, withdrew, on the night of 26 December, to Fort Sumter (q.v.) in the centre of the harbor. This move hastened results. Immediate preparations were made for bombarding the fort. The first firing upon the flag was 9 January by the batteries erected against Fort Sumter, the inciting cause being the appearance of the Star of the West (q.v.) off the harbor. This vessel had been sent from New York with provisions for Sumter, and with the accompanying fleet withdrew without replying to the fire.

Delegates from the seceded States met at Montgomery, Ala., 4 February, and 8 February adopted a provisional government, "The Confederate States of America" (q.v.) and the next day elected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi President, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia Vice-President of the Confederacy. See UNITED STATES THE CONFEDERACY; CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA.

On 1 March Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard, appointed by the Confederate government, was sent to Charleston and took charge of the preparations for reducing Fort Sumter. On 4 March Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as President of the United States. On 10 April Beauregard was instructed to demand the surrender of the fort, and, in case of refusal, to reduce it. The next day Anderson received and promptly declined a demand to evacuate, and at daylight 12 April, the Confederate batteries opened upon Fort Sumter, compelling its surrender on the 14th. The expectation of a relieving fleet probably hastened this attack. See FORT SUMTER.

With the news of the attack and surrender the country received President Lincoln's proclamation calling for 75,000 volunteers, and summoning Congress to meet on 4 July. In an instant discussion over the power to coerce States, the discussion of peace conventions and movements and all similar perplexing questions were brushed aside, and the North responded with intense enthusiasm, the predominating sentiment being the preservation of the Union. The South was equally aflame, rallying under the banner of State rights.

On 8 April President Davis had called for 20,000 volunteers, and the day following President Lincoln's proclamation he asked for 34,000. Two days later the Confederate Congress authorized the raising of 100,000 men. Three days after the surrender of Sumter Virginia seceded, followed 6 May by Arkansas and Tennessee, and 20 May by North Carolina, the belief being then general that a policy of coercion had been decided upon. The border States of Kentucky and Missouri were held to the Union by their loyal element, and Maryland was held at first by the direct power of the national government, and later by its own loyalty. The first two were represented in the Confederate Congress throughout the War. The movement to take Missouri into the Confederacy was

The latter part of July, upon hearing of the arrival of Gen. J. D. Cox of Ohio in the Kanawha Valley, Gen. Robert E. Lee was ordered to the command of West Virginia. The campaign for regaining the State failed, and by November the Confederate authorities decided to abandon the plan of occupying it. General Lee was ordered to the command of the Department of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. See WEST VIRGINIA CAMPAIGN OF 1861; SCAREY CREEK; CAMP BARTOW; CAMP ALLEGHANY; CARNIFAX FERRY; GAULEY BRIDGE; ROMNEY.

Early in July the army in front of Washington under Gen. Irwin McDowell (q.v.) prepared to move against the main Confederate army under General Beauregard in front of Manassas. The flanks of each army toward the Shenandoah were protected by strong forces, Gen. Robert Patterson commanding on the Union side, and confronting Gen. Joseph E. Johnston (q.v.).

The Union advance was hastened by an almost universal cry in the North of "On to Richmond!» General McDowell left his camps on the Virginia side of the Potomac on the afternoon of 16 July with five divisions, encountering an advance brigade of Beauregard's army at Fairfax Court-House. This, with two other brigades, withdrew with light skirmishing to the main lines, which had been established behind Bull Run, its right at the crossing of the railroad from Manassas to Alexandria, and its left at the crossing of the Warrenton turnpike from Alexandria. McDowell's forces were concentrated about Centreville on the 18th, and one brigade had quite an affair on that date at Blackburn's Ford. On the 20th General Johnston arrived with all except one brigade of his army and assumed command. On the 21st McDowell, feinting in front, turned the Confederate left, and maintained a successful battle until near 4 o'clock, when the last brigade (three regiments) of Johnston's army arrived with a battery on the Union right and checked its advance. A brigade of General Beauregard's troops moving farther to the left and more directly on the Union flank, changed this check into a retreat, which soon became a panic, and the entire Union army left the field in disorderly haste. There was slight pursuit, but the panic increased, and only ended when the army was inside the fortifications of Washington. (See BULL RUN, FIRST BATTLE OF). The North was astounded at the result, and the South correspondingly elated. Both sections immediately redoubled their efforts to prepare for vigorous war. General McClellan was summoned from West Virginia and given command of the Department of the Potomac, and began to organize the troops pouring in from all parts of the North. On 20 August he took command of the Army of the Potomac, then for the first time organized under that title, and 1 November he was made commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States in place of Gen. Winfield Scott who had asked to be retired on account of failing health. In the rapid organization going forward in both sections, the South had the advantage of the services of the majority of regular officers from that section who resigned their commissions and went with their States.

After Bull Run there was little heavy fighting during the remainder of 1861, both sides

devoted their chief attention to establishing their lines. On 15 August Jefferson Davis ordered all Northern men to leave the South within 40 days; and the next day President Lincoln proclaimed the seceded States in insurrection and prohibited all intercourse. On the Union side, General Butler in command of a joint expedition of land and naval forces, sailed from Fort Monroe, and 29 August captured the forts guarding Hatteras Inlet (q.v.) opening the way to Pamlico Sound. On the lines of the Army of the Potomac the Union forces under Col. E. D. Baker, senator from California, were defeated at Ball's Bluff (q.v.), 21 October, Colonel Baker being killed. 7 November a joint expedition from Annapolis, under Gen. Thomas West Sherman and Adm. S. F. Dupont, captured Port Royal, thus securing one of the most important harbors on the Southern coast. (See PORT ROYAL BAY; PORT ROYAL FERRY). Gen. E. O. C. Ord, with a Union brigade, defeated a brigade under J. E. B. Stuart, at Dranesville, 20 December. Gen. N. P. Banks succeeded General Patterson in the Shenandoah; General Rosecrans commanded in West Virginia. See also PENSACOLA IN THE CIVIL WAR; FORT PICKENS.

On

On 29 Nov. 1861, Gen. Quincy A. Gillmore was ordered to reconnoiter Fort Pulaski at the mouth of the Savannah River. On 1 December he reported that it could be reduced with batteries at 1,700 yards' distance, a third greater than foreign authorities laid down as practicable against permanent works. His batteries opened 10 April 1862, breached the walls within 24 hours and the fort surrendered 11 April.

Gen. Robert Anderson was assigned to the Department of Kentucky 28 May. His headquarters were fixed at Cincinnati on account of the position of Kentucky in regard to neutrality, but on 1 September his headquarters were moved to Louisville. On 8 October General Anderson's health failing, Gen. W. T. Sherman succeeded to the command of the Department of the Cumberland. On 9 November this Department was discontinued, and under the title of the Department of the Ohio, embracing the States of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and most of Kentucky and Tennessee, Gen. D. C. Buell was assigned to the command, which he assumed 15 November. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was ordered to the District of Southeastern Missouri with headquarters at Cairo, Ill., which he reached 4 September. On the 6th he seized Paducah at the mouth of the Tennessee, and 7 November was defeated in an expedition to Belmont. Gen. J. C. Frémont was ordered_to Missouri, and assumed command 25 July. Before his arrival General Lyon had moved against forces under Gen. Sterling Price with which ex-Governor Jackson was seeking to regain the State (see CARTHAGE; SPRINGFIELD), and in the battle of Wilson's Creek (q.v.), 10 August, where Gen. Ben McCulloch commanded, Lyon was killed and Price occupied southern Missouri. Frémont, upon assuming command, advanced against Price, and occupied Springfield. (See also LEXINGTON, SIEGE OF). Gen. H. W. Halleck succeeded Frémont, assuming command 19 November. Gen. David Hunter then in command at Springfield withdrew under orders, leaving the Confederates in possession of southern Missouri for the rest of the year.

as he advanced. Gen. Braxton Bragg, who had succeeded Beauregard, proceeding to Chattanooga by way of Mobile and moving rapidly north behind the Cumberlands, compelled Buell to withdraw to the Ohio River to protect his department, which included Indiana, Ohio and Michigan. (See MORGAN'S RAID). Gen. E. Kirby Smith, at the same time, invaded Kentucky by way of Cumberland Gap (q.v.), defeated Union forces at Richmond (q.v.), 30 August, and threatened Cincinnati. Buell, upon reaching Louisville, advanced upon Bragg. On 8 October resulted the battle of Perryville (q.v.), by which Bragg was compelled to abandon Kentucky. Passing through Cumberland Gap he retired to Chattanooga, whence he advanced to Murfreesboro in central Tennessee, and went into winter quarters. See HARTSVILLE; PARKER'S CROSS ROADS.

During the operations at Pittsburg Landing and Corinth Gen. O. M. Mitchell advanced with a division from Murfreesboro 5 April, reached Huntsville 11 April, and seized the Memphis and Charleston Railroad from Decatur to Bridgeport. Gen. J. S. Negley's brigade crossed the mountains and bombarded Chattanooga 7 June. Mitchell's operations drew Gen. E. Kirby Smith from East Tennessee, and left the way open for Gen. G. W. Morgan at Cumberland Ford, Ky., to seize Cumberland Gap.

In September Price and Van Dorn, who had previously joined Beauregard from beyond the Mississippi, moved against Grant and Rosecrans in the region of Corinth. Price was defeated by Rosecrans 19 September, at Iuka (q.v.), and Van Dorn, supported by Price, 4 October, at Corinth (q.v.). (See also HATCHIE RIVER). From this campaign Rosecrans was sent to relieve Buell in command of the Army. of the Cumberland, then_styled the Fourteenth corps. On 30 October General Rosecrans relieved General Buell, and concentrated his army at Nashville (q.v.). On 26 December he moved toward Murfreesboro to attack Bragg. The battle began on the last day of the year, and continued during the days of 1-2 Jan. 1863. (See STONE RIVER). General Bragg retreated the night of 3 January, eventually taking up positions at Shelbyville, Tullahoma and Wartrace. General Rosecrans occupied Murfreesboro. The respective armies remained on these lines until Rosecrans' advance in June 1863.

While Rosecrans was succeeding at Murfreesboro, there was a noted Confederate victory at Galveston (q.v.). General Magruder, with a fleet of ordinary river boats, protected with hay and cotton bales, captured the Harriet Lane 1 January, sunk the gunboat Westfield and received the surrender of the forces holding the city. The Confederate Alabama (q.v.), arriving shortly after, captured the gunboat Hatteras.

Both river fleets of armored and unarmored gunboats, mortar-boats and rams were actively engaged on the western rivers. The Union fleet, Com. A. H. Foote, was composed of 45 vessels of various classes and 38 mortarboats. The Confederate fleet, Commodore Montgomery, was somewhat less, but contained several formidable vessels. Commodore Foote's gunboats captured Fort Henry on the Tennessee and played an important part at Fort Donelson, Pittsburg Landing and New Madrid. Commodore Montgomery awaited Foote's fleet, now under the command of

Com. C. H. Davis, before Memphis. The Union fleet was made up of 5 gunboats with 68 guns and 4 rams; the Confederates of 8 gunboats with 28 guns. After a desperate battle, 6 June, against great odds, the Confederate flotilla was destroyed and Memphis surrendered to the fleet. (See also SAINT CHARLES). Davis left Memphis 29 June and 1 July reached Young's Point, where he joined Adm. David G. Farragut's fleet from New Orleans, which had run the Vicksburg batteries.

The year 1862 opened at the east with very general dissatisfaction over the long inaction of General McClellan. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston was at Manassas and Centreville with some 50,000 men, but General McClellan, misled by his secret service, continually insisted that there were three times that number. The Army of the Potomac numbered fully 150,000 present for duty. The Potomac was blockaded and the Confederate flag floated on Munson's Hill in sight of Washington. On 31 January President Lincoln gave McClellan a peremptory_order to move on Manassas not later than 22 February. McClellan asked leave to present a plan of his own for a movement down the Potomac, up the Rappahannock, across to York and thence to Richmond. While he was discussing it, Johnston, placing "Quaker guns" in his embrasures at Centreville, withdrew unmolested behind the Rappahannock to a line of works and field depot already prepared.

Just as his movement began occurred the ominous attack, 8 March, of the Confederate ironclad Merrimac, Flag Officer Franklin Buchanan, which suddenly moved out from Norfolk and attacked the Union fleet in Hampton Roads (q.v.), sinking the frigate Cumberland, capturing and destroying the frigate Congress, doing much other damage and startling the entire Eastern coast. On resuming operations the next day the Merrimac was met and foiled by the Monitor, Lieut. John L. Worden (q.v.), which had just arrived. The Merrimac then retired to Norfolk, being blown up when the Confederates evacuated that city, 9 May. See MONITOR AND MERRIMAC.

McClellan was allowed to undertake his Peninsula campaign (q.v.). On 11 March he was relieved from the general command of the armies. The Army of the Potomac was transported to Fort Monroe and the movement up the peninsula toward Yorktown (q.v.) began 4 April. Heavy rains caused delays from the start. It was found at Washington that the designated number of men had not been left for the proper defense of the capital. McDowell's corps was therefore retained. Arriving before Yorktown with about three times the strength of the enemy, he concluded to lay regular siege to the position. (See LEE'S MILLS). Parallels were therefore opened, nearly 100 heavy siege guns were brought up and at the end of a month, as his batteries were about to open, Gen. J. E. Johnston evacuated the place 3 May and withdrew toward Richmond. He halted at Williamsburg (q.v.), where on the 5th an attack was made upon his lines and at night he withdrew toward Richmond. (See WEST POINT, ENGAGEMENT AT). McClellan followed to the Chickahominy. On 15 May the Union fleet in the James made an unsuccessful attack on Drewry's Bluff (See FORT DARLING), eight miles below Richmond. On