come charged with the temperature and moisture of the regions they have traversed, it is evident that isobaric charts, showing the mean pressure of the atmosphere, form the key to the climates of the different regions of the globe, particularly those different climates which are found to prevail in different regions having practically the same latitude and elevation. This principle is all the more important when it is considered that the prevailing winds determine in a very great degree the currents of the ocean which exercise so powerful an influence on climate.

Since winds bring with them the temperature of the regions they have traversed, southerly currents of air are warm winds, and northerly currents cold winds. Also since the temperature of the ocean is more uniform than that of the land, winds coming from the ocean do not cause such variations of temperature as winds from a continent. As air loaded with vapour obstructs both solar and terrestrial radiation, when clear as well as when clouded, moist ocean winds are accompanied by a mild temperature in winter and a cool temperature in summer, and dry winds coming from continents by cold winters and hot summers. Lastly, cquatorial currents of air, losing heat as they proceed in their course, are thereby brought nearer the point of saturation, and consequently become moister winds; whereas northerly currents acquiring greater heat in their progress | become drier winds.

It follows from these relations of the wind to temperature and moisture that the S. W. wind in the British Isles is a very moist wind, being both an oceanic and equatorial current; whereas the N.E. wind, on the other hand, is peculiarly dry and parching, because it is both a northerly and continental current. Owing to the circumstance of atmospheric pressure diminishing from the south of Europe northwards to Iceland, it follows that S. W. winds are the most prevalent in Great Britain; and since this diminution of pressure reaches its maximum amount and persistency during the winter months, S. W. winds are in the greatest preponderance at this season; hence the abnormally high winter temperature of these islands above what is due to mere latitude. The mean winter temperature of Lerwick, Shetland, in respect of latitude alone would be 3°, and of London 17°, but owing to the heat conveyed from the warm waters of the Atlantic across these islands by the winds, the temperature of Shetland is 39° and of London 38°. In Iceland and Norway the abnormal increase of temperature in winter is still greater. This influence of the Atlantic through the agency of the winds is so preponderating that the winter isothermals of Great Britain lie north and south, instead of the normal east and west direction.

This peculiar distribution of the winter temperature of the British Isles has important bearings on the treatment of diseases. Since the temperature of the whole of the eastern slope of Great Britain is the same, it is clear that to those for whom a milder winter climate is required a journey southward is attended with no practical advantage, unless directed to the west coast. As the temperature on the west is uniform from Shetland to Wales, Scotland is as favourable to weak constitutious during winter as any part of England, except the south-west, the highest winter temperatures being found from the Isle of Wight westward round the Cornish peninsula to the Bristol Channel; and from Carnsoro Point in Ireland to Galway Bay the temperature is also high.

The height and direction of mountain ranges form an important factor in determining the climatic characteristics of prevailing winds. If the range be perpendicular to the winds, the effect is to drain the winds which cross them of their moisture, thus rendering the winters colder and the summers hotter at all places to leeward, as compared with

places to windward, by partially removing the protecting screen of vapour and thus exposing them more effectually to solar and terrestrial radiation. To this cause much of the observed difference between the west and east climates of Great Britain is due. In Ireland, on the other hand, where the mountains are not grouped in rauges running north and south, but in isolated masses, the diff rence between the climates of the east and west is very much less. In the east of the United States the prevailing winds in summer are S. W., and as the Alleghanies lie in the same direction the temperature is little affected by these mountains, and the rainfall is pretty evenly dis tributed on both sides of the range.

In its climatological relations the distribution of rain over the globe presents us with a body of facts which lead, when intelligently interpreted, to a knowledge of the laws regulating the distribution of plants more quickly and certainly than do the facts of temperature. It is to the prevailing winds we must look for an explanation of the rainfall, the broad principles of the connection being these: -1. The rainfall is moderately large when the wind has traversed a considerable extent of ocean; 2, if the winds advance into colder regions the rainfall is largely increased, and if a range of mountains lie across their path the amount precipitated on the side facing the winds is greatly augmented, but diminished over regions on the other side of the range; 3, if the winds, though coming from the ocean, have not traversed a considerable extent of it, the rainfall is not large; and 4, if the winds, even though having traversed a considerable part of the ocean, yet on arriving on the land proceed into lower latitudes, or regions markedly wariner, the rainfall is small or nil. It is this last consideration which accounts for the rainless character of the summer climates of California, of Southern Europe. and of Northern Africa.

The region extending from Alaska to Lower California presents more sudden transitions of climate, and climates more sharply contrasted with each other, than any other portior of the globe, this arising from the contour of its surface and the prevailing winds. A direct contrast to this is offered by the United States to the east of the Mississippi, a region characterized by a remarkable uniformity in the distribution of its rainfall in all seasons, which, taken in connection with its temperature, affords climatic conditions admirably adapted for a vigorous growth of trees and for the great staple products of agriculture. India and the region of the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus Mountains also present extraordinary contrasts of climate in all seasons, due to the prevailing winds, upper as well as lower winds, the relative distribution of land and water, and the physical configuration of the surface of the land.

In the above remarks the only question dealt with has been the average climate of localities and regions. There are, however, it need scarcely be added, vital elements of climate of which such a discussion can take no cognizance. These are the deviations which occur from the seasonal averages of climate, such as periods of extreme cold and heat, or of extreme humidity and dryness of air, liability to storms of wind, thunderstorms, fogs, and snow. An extraordinary downfalls of rain, hail, or illustration will show the climatic difference here insisted

on.

The mean winter temperature of the Southern States of America is almost the same as that of Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt is singularly free from violent alternations of temperature as well as frost, whereas these are marked features of the winter climate of the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. Robert Russell, in his Climate of America, gives an instance of the temperature falling in Southern Texas with a norther from 81° to 18° in 41 hours, the norther blowing at the same time with great

It is to the cyclone and anticyclone (see ATMOSPHERE) we must look for an explanation of these violent weather changes. Climatically, the significance of the anticyclone or area of high pressure consists in the space covered for the time by it being on account of its dryness and clearness more fully under the influence of solar and terrestrial radiation, and consequently exposed to great cold in winter and great heat in summer; and of the cyclone or area of low pressure, in a moist warm atmosphere occupying its front and southern half, and a cold dry atmosphere its rear and northern half.

The low areas of the American cyclones, as they proceed eastward along the north shores of the Gulf of Mexico, are often immediately followed to west and north-westward by areas of very high pressure, the necessary consequence of which is the setting in of a violent norther over the Southern States. Since similar barometric conditions do not occur in the region of Lower Egypt, its climate is free from these sudden changes which are so injurious to the health even of the robust. Since many of the centres of the cyclones of North America follow the track of the lakes and advance on the Atlantic by the New England States and Newfoundland, these States and a large portion of Canada frequently experience cold raw easterly and northerly winds. The great majority of European storms travel eastward with their centres to northward of Farö, and hence the general mildness of the winter climate of the British Isles. When it happens, however, that cyclonic centres pass eastwards along the English Channel or through Belgium and North Germany, while high pressure prevails in the north, the winter is characterized by frosts and snows. The worst summer weather in Great Britain is when low pressures prevail over the North Sea, and the hottest and most brilliant weather when anticyclones lie over Great Britain and extend away to south and eastward. Low pressures in the Mediterranean, along with high pressures to northward, are the conditions of the worst winter weather in the south of Europe. A cyclone in the Gulf of Lyons or of Genoa, and an anticyclone over Germany and Russia, have the mistral as their unfailing attendant, blowing with terrible force and dryness on the Mediter ranean coasts of Spain, France, and North Italy, being alike in its origin and in its climatic qualities the exact counterpart of the norther of the Gulf of Mexico. It follows from the courses taken by the cyclones of the Mediterranean, and the anticyclones which attend on them, that also Algeria, Malta, and Greece are liable to violent alternations of temperature during the cold months.

The investigation of this phase of climate, which can only be carried out by the examination of many thousands of daily weather charts, is as important as it is difficult, since till it be done the advantages and hazards offered by different sanataria cannot be compared and valued. It may in the meantime be enough to say that no place anywhere in Europe or even in Algeria offers an immunity from the risks arising from the occurrence of cold weather in winter at all comparable to that afforded by the climates of Egypt and Madeira. See ATMOSPHERE, METEOROLOGY, and PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. (A. B.) CLINTON, a city of the United States, in Clinton County, Iowa, about 42 miles higher up than Davenport, on the Mississippi, which is crossed at this point by an iron drawbridge upwards of 4000 feet long. It is a thriving place, with workshops for the Chicago and North-Western Railway, and an extensive trade in timber. Several newspapers are published weekly. Population in 1870, 6129.

CLINTON, a town of the United States, in Worcester county, Massachusetts, on the Nashua River, about 32

CLINTON, DE WITT (1769-1828), an American statesman, born at Little Britain, in the State of New York, was the son of a gentleman of English extraction who served as brigadier-general in the war of independence, and of a lady belonging to the famous Dutch family of De Witts. He was educated at Colombia College; and in 1788 he was admitted to the bar. He at once joined the republican party, among the leaders of which was his uncle, George Clinton, governor of New York, whose secretary he became. At the same time he held the office of secretary to the board of regents of the university, and to the commissioners of fortifications. In 1797 he was elected member of the Assembly, in 1798 member of the Senate of the State of New York, and in 1801 member of the Senate of the United States. For twelve years, with two short breaks, which amounted only to three years, he occupied the position of mayor of New York. He was also again member of the Senate of New York from 1803 to 1811, and lieutenant-governor of the State from 1811 to 1813. In 1812 he became a candidate for the presidency; but he was defeated by Madison, and lost even his lieutenantgovernorship. Throughout his whole career Clinton had been distinguished by his intelligent support of all schemes of improvement, and he now devoted himself to carrying out the proposal for the construction of canals from Lakes Erie and Champlain to the River Hudson. The Federal Government refused to undertake the work; but some time after, in 1815, the year in which he finally lost the mayoralty, he presented a memorial on the subject to the Legislature of New York, and the Legislature appointed a commission, of which he was made a member, to make surveys and draw up estimates. Having thus recovered his popularity, in 1816 Clinton was once more chosen governor of the State; in 1819 he was re-elected, and again in 1824 and 1826. In 1825 the Erie Canal was completed; and he afterwards saw the work which owed so much to him carried on by the construction of important branch canals.

De Witt Clinton published a Memoir on the Antiquities of Western New York (1818), Letters on the Natural History and Internal Resources of New York (1822), and Speeches to the Legislature (1823). His life was written by Hosack (1829) and Renwick (1840); and in 1849 appeared Campbell's Life and Writings of De Witt Clinton.

CLINTON, HENRY FYNES (1781-1852), an English classical scholar, was born at Gamston, in Nottinghamshire. He was descended from the second earl of Lincoln; for some generations the name of his family was Fynes, but his father resumed the older family name of Clinton. Educated at Southwell school in his native county, at Westminster school, and at Christ Church College, Oxford, he devoted himself to the minute and almost uninterrupted study of classical literature and history. From 1806 to 1826 he was M.P. for Aldborough.

His chief works are-Fasti Hellenici, a Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece, which also contains dissertations on points of Grecian history and Scriptural chronology (4 vols., 1824, 1827, 1880, 1834); and Fasti Romani, a Civil and Literary Chronology of Rome and Constantinople from the Death of Augustus to the Death of Heraclius (2 vols., 1845 and 1851). In 1851 he published an epitome of the former, and an epitome of the latter appeared in 1853. The Literary Remains of H. F. Clinton were published by C. J. F. Clinton in

1854

CLITHEROE, a manufacturing town and a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, in the county of

Lancashire, situated not far from the Ribble, at the foot of Pendle Hills, about 28 miles by railway north of Manchester. It has several suburbs, known as Waterloo, Salford, and Bawdlands, and at the side of the river is the little village of Low Moor. Its principal buildings are the parish church of St Michael's, a grammar school founded in 1554, the moothall, and the county court erected in 1861; and its industrial establishments comprise cottonmills, extensive print-works, paper-mills, foundries, and brick and lime works. The cotton manufacture alone employed upwards of 2000 people in 1871. Clitheroe was a borough by prescription as early as the 11th century, and in 1138 it is mentioned as the scene of a battle between the Scotch and English. Its castle, probably built not long after, was a fortress of the Lacy family, and continued a defensible position till 1649, when it was dismantled by the Parliamentary forces. The Honor of Clitheroe, for a long time a part of the duchy of Lancaster, and bestowed by Charles II. on General Monk, is now in the possession of the Buccleuch family. Population of the municipal borough in 1871, 8208; of the parliamentary, 11,786. CLITOMACHUS, a leader of the New Academy, was a Carthaginian originally named Hasdrubal, who came to Athens about the middle of the 2d century B.C. He made himself well acquainted with Stoical and Peripatetic philosophy; but he principally studied under Carneades, whose views he adopted, and whom he succeeded as chief representative of the New Academy in 129 B.C. His works were some 400 in number; but we possess scarcely anything but a few titles, among which are De sustinendis offensionibus, repì inoxns (on suspension of judgment), and #epi aipéσewv (an account of various philosophical sects). In 146 he wrote a philosophical treatise to console his countrymen after the ruin of their city. One of his works was dedicated to the Latin poet Lucilius, another to L. Censorinus, who was consul in 149 B.C.

CLITOR, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of Arcadia which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta. It stood in a fertile plain to the south of Mount Chelmos, the highest peak of the Aroanian Mountains, and not far from a stream of its own name, which joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the neighbourhood was a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive those who drunk them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of considerable importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted for their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against Orchomenos. As a member of the Achæan league it suffered siege åt the hands of the Etolians, and was on several occasions the seat of the federal assemblies. The ruins, which bear the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen about three miles from a village that preserves the ancient designation. The greater part of the walls and several of the circular towers with which they were strengthened can be clearly made out; and there are also remains of a small Doric temple, the columns of which were adorned with strange capitals.

CLIVE, ROBERT (1725-1774), Baron Clive of Plassy, in the peerage of Ireland, was the statesman and general who founded the empire of British India beforo ho was forty years of age. He is now represented by the Powis family, his son having been made earl of Powis in the peerage of the United Kingdom. Clive was born on the 29th September 1725' at Styche, the family estate in the parish of Moreton-Say, Market-Drayton, Shropshire. We learn from himself, in his second speech in the House of Commons in 1773, that as the estate yielded only £500 a year, his father followed the profession of the law also. The Clives, or Clyves, formed one of the oldest families in the

county of Shropshire, having held the manor of that name in the reign of Henry II. One Clive was Irish Chancellor of the Exchequer under Henry VIII.; another was a member of the Long Parliament; Robert's father sat for many years for Montgomeryshire. His mother, to whom throughout life he was tenderly attached, and who had a powerful influence on his career, was a daughter, and wich her sister Lady Sempill co-heir, of Nathaniel Gaskell of Manchester. Robert was their eldest son. With his five sisters, all of whom were married in due time, he ever maintained the most affectionate relations. His only brother survived to 1825. Young Clive was the despair of his teachers. Sent from school to school, and for only a short time at the Merchant Taylors' school, which had then a high reputation, he neglected his books for boyish adventures, often of the most dangerous kind. But ho was not so ignorant as it is the fashion of his biographers to represent. He could translate Horace in after life, at the opening of the book; and he must have laid in his youth the foundation of that clear and vigorous English style which marked all his despatches, and made Lord Chatham declare of one of his speeches in the House of Commons that it was the most eloquent he had ever heard. From his earliest years, however, his anibition was to lead his fellows; but he never sacrificed honour, as the word was then understood, even to the fear of death. At eighteen he was sent out to Madras as a "factor" or "writer" in the civil service of the East India Company. The deten tion of the ship at Brazil for nine months enabled him to acquire the Portuguese language, which, at a time when few or none of the Company's servants learned the vernaculars of India, he often found of use during his service there. For the first two years of his residence he was miserable. He felt keenly the separation from home; he was always breaking through the restraints imposed on young "writers;" and he was rarely out of trouble with his fellows, with one of whom he fought a duel. Thus early, too, the effect of the climate on his health began to show itself in those fits of depression during one of which he afterwards prematurely ended his life. The story is told of him by his companions, though he himself never spoke of it, that he twice snapped a pistol at his head in vain. His one solace was found in the Governor's library, where he sought to make up for past carelessness, not only by much reading, but by a course of study. He was just of age, when in 1746 Madras was forced to capitulate to Labourdonnais, during the war of the Austrian Succession. The breach of that capitulation by Dupleix, then at the head of the French settlements in India, led Clive, with others, to escape from the town to the subordinate Fort St David, some twenty miles to the south. There, disgusted with the state of affairs and the purely commercial duties of an East Indian civilian, as they then were, Clive obtained au ensign's commission.

At this time India was ready to become the prize of the first conqueror who to the dash of the soldier added the skill of the administrator. For the forty years since the death of the Emperor Aurungzebe, the power of the Great Mogul had gradually fallen into the hands of his provincial viceroys or soubadars. The three greatest of these were the nawab of the Deccan, or South and Central India, who ruled from Hyderabad, the nawab of Bengal, whose capital was Moorshedabad, and the nawab or vizier of Oudh. The prize lay between Dupleix, who had the genius of an administrator, or rather intriguer, but was no soldier, and Clive, the first of a century's brilliant succession of those "soldier-politicals," as they are called in the East, to whom, ending with Sir Henry Lawrence, Great Britain owes the conquest and consolidation of its greatest dependency. Clive successively established British ascend

ency aganist French influence in the three great provinces under these nawabs. But his merit lies especially in the ability and foresight with which he secured for his country, and for the good of the natives, the richest of the three, Bengal. First, as to Madras and the Deccan, Clive had hardly been able to commend himself to Major Stringer Lawrence, the commander of the British troops, by his courage and skill in several small engagements, when the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle forced him to return to his civil duties for a short time. An attack of the malady which so severely affected his spirits led him to visit Bengal, where he was soon to distinguish himself. On his return he found a contest going on between two sets of rival claimants for the position of viceroy of the Deccan, and for that of nawab of the Carnatic, the greatest of the subordinate states under the Deccan. Dupleix, who took the part of the pretenders to power in both places, was carrying all before him. The British had been weakened by the withdrawal of a large force under Admiral Boscawen, and by the return home, on leave, of Major Lawrence. But that officer had appointed Clive commissary for the supply of the troops with provisions, with the rank of captain. More than one disaster had taken place on a small scale, when Clive drew up a plan for dividing the enemy's forces, and offered to carry it out himself. The pretender. Chunda Sahib, had been made nawab of the Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the more legitimate successor, Mahomed Ali. Chunda Sahib had left Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, to reduce Trichinopoly, then held by a weak English battalion. Clive offered to attack Arcot that he might force Chunda Sahib to raise the siege of Trichinopoly. But Madras and Fort St David could supply him with only 200 Europeans and 300 sepoys. Of the eight officers who led them, four were civilians like Clive himself, and six had never been in action. His force had but three field-pieces. The cir cumstance that Clive, at the head of this handful, had been seen marching during a storm of thunder and lightning, led the enemy to evacuate the fort, which the British at once began to strengthen against a siege. Clive treated the great population of the city with so much consideration that they helped him, not only to fortify his position, but to make successful sallies against the enemy. As the days passed on, Chunda Sahib sent a large army under his son and his French supporters, who entered Arcot and closely besieged Clive in the citadel. An attempt to relieve him from Madras was defeated. Meanwhile the news of the marvellous defence of the English reached the Mahratta allies of Mahomed Ali, who advanced to Clive's rescue. This led the enemy to redouble their exertions, but in vain. After for fifty days besieging the fort, and offering large sums to Clive to capitulate, they retired from Arcot. The brave garrison had been so reduced by the gradual failure of provisions that the sepoys offered to be content with the thin gruel which resulted from the boiling of the rice, leaving the grain to their European comrades. Of the 200 Europeans 45 had been killed, aud of the 300 sepoys 30 had fallen, while few of the survivors had escaped wounds. India, we might say in all history, there is no parallel to this exploit of 1751 till we come to the siege of Lucknow in 1857. Clive, now reinforced, followed up his advantage, and Major Lawrence returned in time to carry the war to a successful issue. In 1754 the first of our Carnatic treaties was made provisionally, between Mr T. Saunders, the Company's resident at Madras, and M. Godeheu, the French commander, in which the English protegé, Mahomed Ali, was virtually recognized as nawab, and both nations agreed to equalize their possessions. When war again broke out in 1756, and the French, during Clive's absence in Bengal, obtained successes in the northern districts, his

In

efforts helped to drive them from their settlements. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 formally confirmed Mahomed Ali in the position which Clive had won for him. Two years after, the Madras work of Clive was completed by a firmaun from the emperor of Delhi, recognizing the British possessions in Southern India.

The siege of Arcot at once gave Clive a European repniation. Pitt pronounced the youth of twenty-seven who had done such deeds a "heaven-born general," thus endorsing the generous appreciation of his early commander, Major Lawrence. When the Court of Directors voted him a sword worth £700, he refused to receive it unless Lawrence was similarly honoured. He left Madras for home, after ten years absence, early in 1753, but not before marrying Miss Margaret Maskelyne, the sister of a friend, and of one who was afterwards well known as astronomer royal. All his correspondence proves him to have been a good husband and father, at a time when society was far from pure, and scandal made havoc of the highest reputations. In after days, when Clive's uprightness and stern reform of the Company's civil and military services made him many enemies, a biography of him appeared under the assumed name of Charles Carracioli, Gent. All the evidence is against the probability of its scandalous stories being true. Clive's early life seems occasionally to have led him to yield to one of the vices of his time, loose or free talk among intimate friends, but beyond this nothing has been proved to his detriment. After he had been two years at home the state of affairs in India made the directors anxious for his return. He was scut out, in 1756, as governor of Fort St David, with the reversion of the government of Madras, and he received the commission of lieutenant-colonel in the king's army. He took Bombay on his way, and there commanded the land force which captured Gheriah, the stronghold of the Mahratta pirate, Angria. In the distribution of prize money which followed this expedition he showed no little self-denial. He took his seat as governor of Fort St David on the day on which the nawab of Bengal captured Calcutta. Thither the Madras Government at once sent him, along with Admiral Watson. He entered on the second period of his career.

Since, in August 1690, Job Charnock had landed at the village of Chuttanutti with a guard of one officer and 30 men, the infant capital of Calcutta had become a rich centre of trade. The successive nawabs or viceroys of Bengal had been friendly to it, till, in 1756, Suraj-ud-Dowlan succeeded his uncle at Moorshedabad. His predecessor's financial minister had fled to Calcutta to escape the extortion of the new nawab, and the English governor refused to deliver up the refugee. Enraged at this, Suraj-udDowlah captured the old fort of Calcutta on the 5th August, and plundered it of more than two millions sterling. Many of the English fled to the ships and dropped down the river. The 146 who remained, were forced into "the Black Hole" in the stifling heat of the sultriest period of the year. Only 23 came out alive. The fleet was as strong, for those days, as the land force was weak. Disembarking his troops some miles below the city, Clive marched through the jungles, where he lost bis way owing to the treachery of his guides, but soon invested Fort William, while the fire of the ships reduced it, on the 2d January 1757. On the 4th February he defeated the whole army of the nawab, which had taken up a strong position just beyond what is now the most northerly suburb of Calcutta. The nawab hastened to conclude a treaty, under which favourable terms were conceded to the Company's trade, the factories and plundered property were restored, and an English mint was established. In the accompanying agreement, offensive and defensive, Clive appears under the name by which he was always known to