viewed by Porson, in Matty's Review; who there gave some restorations, which Fiorillo used in his edition of Herodes Atticus; while some of the others were confirmed by the Ravenna MS. which Immanuel Bekker collated with greater care than Invernizzi had done; and after transcribing the inedited scholia from that and other MSS. sold his papers for 400l. to Priestley the bookseller of London, who made them the basis of his partial reprint of Dindorf's voluminous publication. From that time to the present nearly all the accessible libraries of Europe have been ransacked for MSS. of Aristophanes, the counterpart of the Ravenna, but without success; and hence, as no further aid can be expected from such sources, the only means left for the restoration of the Greek dramatist, are to be found in the ingenuity of scholars to emend the errors of the text, and in their good fortune to discover supplements of the lacunæ. Of the latter, the most curious instance has been furnished by a Greek life of Euripides, which has preserved three lines at present wanting in the Acharnians, 395; but which it is evident the scholiast found in his copy; to which a distinct allusion is made by the same or another scholiast on Barp. 942, and by Suidas in Movode. The tristich, to which allusion is here made, and which has been totally overlooked by all the recent translators and editors of Aristophanes, was first printed in the Journal des Savans, April 1832, p. 240; Annal. Philolog. et Pædagog. i. p. 539; Rheinesche Museum, i. p. 298; and Hermann, Opuscul. v. p. 202.

Amongst the still unedited papers of scholars who have paid attention to Aristophanes, those of Daubuz at present in the British Museum deserve to be noticed. His name appears in Kuster's preface as the person to whom that editor was indebted for the collation of the Bodleian MS.; and though the notes of Daubuz are rather upon the scholia than the text, yet in some few instances he has anticipated the emendations of subsequent critics.

the subsequent versions of Mitchell and Walsh; the former of whom has been less anxious to do than overdo Aristophanes in his partial versions of the Acharnians, Knights, and Clouds; and has thus left to the latter the task of giving a more faithful portrait of the Greek dramatist in his complete translation of the same plays. To these must be added the version of Wheelwright, who has alone dared to grapple with the whole eleven plays; but he has designedly omitted whatever was likely to offend the delicacy of modern ears.

ARISTOPHANES, the celebrated grammarian of Byzantium, was the son of Apelles, a military officer, and the pupil of Callimachus and Zenodotus. Placed by Ptolemy over the library at Alexandria, he gave an edition of Homer, which is frequently mentioned in the Venetian Scholia. He wrote likewise Homeric, Doric, and Attic Glossaries; in which he appears to have paid some attention to words indicative of different degrees of relationship. Eustathius mentions also a separate treatise by him on the Egis of Jupiter. To him has been assigned an abridgement of Aristotle's History of Animals; and some lives and arguments prefixed to the plays of Sophocles and Aristophanes bear his name. These were probably extracted from the work he is said to have written against Callimachus. Speaking of the causes which led to his appointment as librarian, Vitruvius says, that when seven judges were appointed to decide upon the merits of the poets, whose works were to be placed in the library at Alexandria, Aristophanes selected those whom the others rejected; for, said he, they alone are original writers, the rest are merely plagiarists; and as he verified the assertion by producing the very passages that had been pilfered, it was thought that he was the most proper person to take care of books, with the contents of which he was so well acquainted; and it was at this time, probably, that he wrote a treatise, to show the similarity in sentiments between Menander and preceding dramatists. Of the same, or another grammarian, Plutarch, ii. p. 972, tells a story, how an elephant was the rival of the scholar in the attentions paid to a flower-girl at Alexandria.

oration, still extant, in behalf of Aristophanes, prefect of Corinth.-3. A writer on agriculture, mentioned by Pliny.

ARISTOPHON. 1. The individual sent by the government of Four Hundred at Athens, on an embassy to Sparta, in Ol. 92, 1, and who afterwards introduced the law that no person should be considered a citizen whose mother had not been a free woman. If he is the same as the one who brought Iphicrates and Timotheus to trial on a charge of betraying their country, he must have lived to Ol. 106, 1. He is numbered oftener than once by Demosthenes amongst the celebrated orators of Athens; and according to Ruhnken, in Histor. Crit. Orat. p. 46, he was the son of Demostratus the orator, mentioned by Plutarch as the son of Aristophon.-2. Another orator, sometimes confounded with the preceding, seems to have been a person of great influence; for he is described in a fragment of a speech of Hyperides against him, as conceiving himself at liberty to do what he pleased. According to the Greek biographer of Æschines, the antagonist of Demosthenes was a scribe in Aristophon's employ.3. The archon Eponymus, who is called likewise an orator in Theophrastus, Charact. 8. But there, Ruhnken conceives the words Tov pηropos to be an interpolation; while Casaubon would read Twv pηторwv, in allusion to the contest between the rival orators respecting the crown, which took place in his archonship.-4. A comic writer in the time of Alexander the Great. Of his dramas, the titles of only eight have been preserved, and a few fragments in Athenæus, Stobæus, and Julius Pollux.-5. The author of a work under the title of Avoapeoria, quoted by Fulgentius.

ARISTOPHON, a painter, the son and disciple of Aglaophon, and brother of Polygnotus, and who flourished about the eightieth Olympiad.

ARISTOTELE, (Sebastian de San Gallo.) See SAN GALLO.

ARISTOTILE, (Alberti, or Fioravanti,) an eminent Italian architect, engineer, and mathematician, was a native of Bologna, in which city he is said to have removed the campanile of the Duomo, entire and with all its bells, to the distance of thirty-five feet from its original site, by means of machinery. In like manner he restored to an upright position another campanile, at Cento, which was inclined about five feet and a half out of the perpendicular; and he was invited to Hungary by Matthæus Corvinus, where he erected several edifices and bridges. How long he remained

in that country is not precisely known ; but in 1470 he was employed at Venice, where he built some churches; and in 1473 was summoned to Russia by the grand-duke Ivan Vassilivitch, who had sent to Italy for an architect to erect a cathedral at Moscow; the former one, though begun only in 1426, being so badly constructed, that it was found necessary to take it down altogether. Aristotile completed the new edifice in four years, and according to the Russians themselves, he executed or designed many other buildings; and among the rest, several at Vologda and Novogorod: but here all further particulars of him cease, for neither the time nor the place of his death have been ascertained, notwithstanding the celebrity he enjoyed among his contemporaries,-one proof of which is, that the invitation to enter his service was made to him by Mahomet II. probably on account of his reputation as an engineer. In this latter capacity he appears to have been eminently serviceable to the Russians, whom he instructed in the art of casting cannon.

ARISTOTLE, a celebrated philosopher, founder of the Peripatetic school. He was born in the first year of the ninety-ninth Olympiad (B. c. 384-3) at Stagirus, a petty town in the north of Greece, situated on the western side of the Strymonic gulf. His father was Nicomachus, one of the family, or guild, of the Asclepiads, who resided in the capacity of body-surgeon at the court of Amyntas, king of Macedonia, the father of the celebrated Philip. His mother's name was Phæstis. She was a descendant of one of a number of colonists from Chalcis in Euboea, by whom the population of Stagirus, which was founded by the Andrians, had been subsequently replenished.

The father of Aristotle died while his son was yet a minor, and left him under the guardianship of one Proxenus, a citizen of Atarneus, a town of Asia, who appears to have been settled in Stagirus. It is probable that the orphan was left in the possession of a considerable fortune, and this did not suffer, as was so often the case in antiquity, from the carelessness or malversation of fraudulent guardians. The gratitude of Aristotle towards Proxenus is one of the most striking features of his moral character. will, or a codicil to a will, which has come down to us, he directs the erection of a statue to his guardian, and also to his wife; he appoints their son Nicanor,

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whom he had previously adopted, to be joint guardian with Antipater of his own son Nicomachus; and he also bestows his daughter upon him in marriage. Such a testimony of regard and esteem is an irrefragable argument in favour of Proxenus's conduct, and utterly disproves a foolish story which was made up by the enemies of Aristotle some time after his death, that he ran through his paternal property at an early age, and was reduced by want to take service as a mercenary soldier; that failing in this character, he set up as a vendor of apothecary's drugs; and finally, by the aid of Plato's gratuitous instructions, was enabled to succeed in the capacity of a philosopher. As he was only of the age of seventeen when he came to Athens and devoted himself to those pursuits for which he became afterwards so celebrated, it is quite obvious, independently of the improbability that a mere boy should have passed through so many vicissitudes of fortune, that he could never have squandered his property except through the culpable negligence or indulgence of his guardian, who, in such a case, would never have been remembered with respect and gratitude by his ward, after a lapse of forty-five years.

At the time when Aristotle's minority terminated, and left him at liberty to dispose of himself as he would, Athens was the centre of the civilization of Greece, and possessed for the votary of pleasure, as well as for the student, attractions superior to any other city in the world. "Where," asks the Sicilian orator, in Diodorus (xiii. 27), "shall foreigners go for instruction, if Athens be destroyed?" Hippias the sophist is made by Plato (Protag. § 69) to call it "the very prytaneum of Grecian wisdom;" and the descriptions of the comic poets in the fragments which have been preserved, show that even the lower gratifications of sense were there carried to a remarkable pitch of refinement. Of imported and forced fruits, vegetables, and flowers for garlands, there was such an abundant supply, that Aristophanes (ap. Athen. p. 372) declares that foreigners who walked through the agora, the Covent-garden of Athens, would be utterly unable to guess what the season of the year could be. We need hardly then look for any particular motive that should have influenced a youth of seventeen, master of himself, and an ample independence, to resort to a place where Plato was residing in the height of his reputation,-where the splendour of a Pericles had called the genius

of a Phidias into action to adorn the city of Athens in a manner worthy of the goddess,-where the tragedies of a Sophocles and the comedies of an Aristophanes had been produced,-where almost all the heroes whose names were great in Grecian story had been born and reared, and where every enjoyment which even an epicurean could desire, was to be found in the highest perfection. Certainly, if a specific reason is to be assigned for such a step, none more absurd can well be imagined than what was invented by the perverse ingenuity of subsequent times, when all real knowledge of this period had faded away; namely, α Delphic oracle, which commanded the young Stagirite to go to Athens, and devote himself to philosophy." It is more probable that, although Aristotle's father died when the son was little more than a child, it was not until he had infused a taste for scientific pursuits into him; for we know that Nicomachus was not a mere practitioner, but wrote upon his art, and those branches of natural philosophy which were connected with it; and also that it was universally the practice of the Asclepiads to teach the rudiments of their hereditary profession to their children from the very earliest years, so that, as Galen remarks, "there was no more fear of their forgetting their anatomy than of their forgetting their alphabet." Under these circumstances, especially when we consider how much a taste for this branch of study predominates in Aristotle's works, it is scarcely possible to consider his journey to Athens as produced by any other cause than the desire of carrying on pursuits previously commenced, probably under the immediate guidance of his parent.

In Athens he remained nearly twenty years attached to the school of Plato, and in habits of personal friendship both with his great master and his future successor in the Academy, Xenocrates. It is indeed not improbable that his introduction to the philosophy of the Academy was due to this last; for at the time when he first came to Athens Plato was absent on one of his visits to Sicily, from whence he did not return till three years afterwards. During this long period, Aristotle employed himself chiefly in laying up materials for his future use, and such was his diligence that Plato is said to have given to his house the name of "the house of the reader." An anecdote is related of him, that in order to prevent the remission of attention which results

from nature insensibly giving way under the pressure of severe study, it was his practice to read holding a ball in one hand, under which was placed a brazen basin. On the slightest involuntary relaxation of the muscles, the ball would immediately fall, and the sudden noise at once dissipate the incipient drowsiness of the student. One result of these labours was a collection of the history, laws, and customs, of no less than one hundred and fifty-eight states, a magnificent work, of which, though it has unfortunately been lost, a good many fragments have come down to us preserved in the writings of scholiasts and grammarians. Some part of the political treatise, too, which we have, must have been written during this period, although other parts obviously are to be referred to a much later date. A collection of proverbs, a work on the fundamental principles on which the codes of law in the Greek states were severally based, and an historical view of the science of rhetoric,all unfortunately lost, were composed by him in this part of his life. From the last of these, the sketch of the rise of the art which Cicero gives in his Brutus (§ 12) is apparently derived, and he elsewhere describes it as containing an account of the theories of all the professors from the time of Tisias, (the first who wrote upon the subject,) so admirably and perspicuously set forth, that all persons in his time who wished to gain a knowledge of them preferred Aristotle's description to their own. Besides these writings, which were all rather of the nature of collections, digests, and criticisms, than containing original views of the writer's own, he gave public lectures on the subject of rhetoric, which, according to Cicero, united instruction in political wisdom with practice in oratory, and were not without their weight in influencing Philip, king of Macedonia, to select their author to be the preceptor of Alexander the Great. It is said that Aristotle was induced to come forward in the character of a professor of oratory by indignation at the undeserved success of the shallow and sophistical Isocrates. He is reported to have quoted a line which Euripides, in his Philoctetes, a play now lost, put into the mouth of Ulysses,

"Shame to be silent and let a barbarian speak," in application to that celebrated declaimer. Isocrates deprecated any attempt to base the art upon scientific

principles, and himself professed to teach it by mere practice in the schools, as fencing or boxing might be learnt. His unphilosophical method is alluded to in terms of disapprobation, in the treatise on rhetoric which has come down to us, but in all probability must have been censured in a much more unequivocal manner in the work which we have just described. Isocrates did not come forward to defend himself, but a scholar of his, one Cephisodorus, took up the pen in his behalf, and in a polemical treatise of considerable length, did not confine himself to the defence of his master's doctrines, but indulged in the most virulent attacks upon the character, both moral and intellectual, of his rival. This work, however, as well as the one which called it forth, is now lost.

A report prevailed, rather extensively, in antiquity that an ill feeling between Aristotle and his great master arose antecedently to the death of the latter, and some anecdotes are told (none however on any earlier authority than Ælian, who was not born till four centuries afterwards) illustrative of this opinion. But the report is contradicted in the most unequivocal manner by Aristocles, a Peripatetic philosopher of very considerable learning and judgment, who lived in the first half of the third century of the christian era, and in a sort of history of philosophy, of which a fragment is preserved by Eusebius, examined the grounds upon which the charge against Aristotle of ingratitude to his master was built, satisfactorily demonstrating that it deserved no credit whatever. There is certainly a great difference between the habits of thought and modes of feeling observable in the writings of the two great philosophers. The one never omits an occasion of passing from the finite to the infinite, from the sensuous to the spiritual, from the domain of the intellect to that of the feelings and the imagination. He is continually striving to body forth an ideal, and he only regards the actual as it furnishes materials for this. In the other we find a searching and comprehensive view of things as they present themselves to the understanding, but no attempt to pass the limits of that faculty-no suspicion indeed that such exist. The productions of the two differ as a map differs from a picture. The views of the one always form parts of a system intellectually complete; those of the other have a moral harmony: we rise from the study of Plato with our feelings purified,