fact the climate and soil of Minnesota have made possible the introduction of many plants once looked upon as exotic but now showing everywhere on the lawns and farms of the State without being protected against the win

ter.

The French explorers found the beaver working along every stream, and they, with succeeding trappers, almost exterminated this animal; but of late years under the protection of the State the beaver is multiplying rapidly. Marten, otter, mink, muskrat and other furbearers have always been numerous. In the wilder parts of the State coyotes and timber wolves, black bears, foxes, lynx and various rodents, including, the gopher, for which Minnesota has been called "The Gopher State," are prevalent, except where care has been taken to prevent their becoming a nuisance to stock or to crops. Deer and moose attract hunters to the northern part of the State. The streams and lakes are well stocked with pickerel, pike, bass, crappies and sunfish and some trout are caught.

Forestry. The pine of Minnesota seemed inexhaustible to the pioneers. It stretched from the Rum River, 20 miles north of Minneapolis, to the international boundary and covered twothirds of the State in width. Mills at Minneapolis, in one year cutting 500,000,000 feet of lumber, made that city the first lumber centre of the world. Gradually the lumbering operations have moved northward, following the diminishing timber, until they are confined to a comparatively small area. Within this area, however, mills, notably at Virginia, are promised logs for 20 years; that is regardless of fresh supplies guaranteed by scientific forestry. In 1917 the total lumber cut in the State was 1,500,000,000 feet. Beside this, 800,000,000 feet of pulp-wood, 425,000,000 feet of ties, posts, poles and mining timber, and 225,000,000 feet of box-lumber were cut. Balsam, hemlock, spruce and even the once despised jack-pine are used for the coarse grades of lumber as well as for these other purposes. Of white pine 20,000,000000 feet remain, of other woods, 70,000,000,000.

Minnesota, through its forestry commission which employs the State forester and his rangers, is taking steps to protect the timber that remains and to replant large areas unfit for agriculture that will grow merchantable white pine in 40 years. It has passed laws to control the operations of lumbermen, so as to prevent fires from accumulations of waste, to safeguard timber from locomotive and camp fires, to assist lumbermen through laboratory experiments and to ensure to the State a permanent supply of lumber. The State owns 400,000 acres in forest reserves; and the United States government 1,000,000. To patrol this territory and to carry on the other work of the forestry commission 50 men are employed. It is estimated that 15,000,000 acres can profitably remain in forest, or about half of the original timber area. With the development of the plans outlined by the commission Minnesota will be able to produce 4,000,000,000 feet of lumber annually.

Agriculture. Minnesota has been called "the Bread and Butter State," for its yields of wheat and dairy products have been its chief claim to agricultural distinction; but other crops are gaining in importance. Corn-growing has advanced northward until Aitkin

County, 250 miles north of the Iowa line, once supposed to be the limit beyond which corn could not be ripened, enters prize-winning ears at the Minnesota State Fair. The growing of corn in the southern part of the State, and the corresponding increase of stock raising, has restored the soil to profitable wheat land, although the great wheat fields are in the Red River Valley. Potatoes are the chief crop in the district between the upper Saint Croix and the Mississippi rivers; and are entering into the calculation of farmers in other parts of the State. While Minnesota cannot be called a fruit-growing State in the sense that New York and Michigan are held, its State Horticultural Society and experiment stations have made it clear to the farmers that they can count on good crops of strawberries, raspberries and plums, each of which have been greatly improved in yield, appearance, keeping quality and cold-resisting ability. Apples are produced in all parts of the State, although a good winter apple is still to be found. Vegetables of all kinds are easily produced and grow to a great size, especially in the sandy parts of the State. The dairying industry shows a constant gain over the State year by year. Poultry-raising is also on the increase. A striking movement is that toward the improvement of stock. Bee-keeping has received an impetus through the appointment of State inspectors to ensure the health of the colonies and to suggest the best methods of obtaining results. It is significant that as the cut-over lands are brought under cultivation by the assistance of the United States and Minnesota agricultural stations, the most efficient men are sent out as county agents to prevent the waste and loss that were inevitable in the days of the first prairie farms, so that surprising improvement takes place in the shortest possible time. A comparison between the statistics for 1910 and 1917 follows:

Value, 1917 $45.62*

177.3

$ 75,090,531 101.720.636

8,776,980 1,170,849

3,065,868

1910 14,731,464 16,643,533

156,137

156,137

2,347,435 760,000 1,520,257 637,582 11,862,787

2,506,281

902,925

879,946

235,300

15,000,000

784

922

35,000,000 57,057,412

57,965,000 117,089,000

67,897,051

90,000,000

99,000,000

41,958,000

75,758,000

12,667,000

30,576,000

60,619,000

1,980,000

5,841,000

138,816,826 $ 37,196,349

The total value of the 1917 crop, according to the United States government, was $447,498,000. The value of the machinery and implements used on the farms is $52,329,000. Of all the crops, onions show the largest returns per acre, yielding 504,600 bushels on 1,400 acres with a total value of $732,000, or $504.60

per acre.

The State still holds 2,000,000 acres of farm land and the United States 800,000. The proposed special government aid in developing public lands and a law already in force that pro

vides for the clearing of a portion of each 40acre tract sold by the State, will greatly stimulate agricultural improvement in Minnesota.

Manufactures.- The raw materials close at hand-breadstuffs, livestock, lumber and ironare the basis of most of the manufacturing done in the State. Flour- and grist-mill products are of prime importance. Beginning with the government mill at Saint Anthony Falls in 1821 the industry has thrived enormously. By the substitution of steel rolls for buhr stones, and by the invention of the bolting process that purifies and saves the middlings that once were largely waste, Minnesota millers in the seventies took first place in the world, and in 1917 mills to the number of 286 made flour valued at $300,000,000. (See MINNEAPOLIS - Manufacturing). The second industry is the slaughtering of cattle, sheep and hogs. South Saint Paul is the centre of this trade. Extensive yards receive the stock from the ranches and farms of Montana, Wyoming, the Dakotas and Minnesota, and the packing-houses produce an annual value of $47,710,000. The third industry is the manufacture of lumber and other timber products, such as sash and doors, cooperage and boxes. In these interests there are 481 firms, and they produce an annual total of $47,000,000. Foundry products, machinery and car repairs together make a fourth industry of importance. In all 450 concerns produce goods valued at $39,000,000. The gas tractor is a rapidly increasing figure. Although farm machinery is chiefly made there is apparently growing diversity in this industry. At Duluth, steel mills are turning the ore of the Mesabe and other ranges into ingots for Eastern shipment, and are making some steel, although the Western market for this product is necessarily limited. Other products of Minnesota manufacturers are butter and cheese (see Agriculture); other foods, including confectionery, ice cream and bakery products, valued at $32,350,000; clothing, including knit goods and boots and shoes, $20,000,000; printing and publishing, $20,200,000; linseed oil and meal, $12,356,000, and malt liquors, $14,300,000. There are 5,794 firms in the manufacturing trade. They employ 92,834 persons and produce annually $493,354,136 worth of goods. For this manufacturing there is already available 100,000 horse power in the streams that have been exploited, and, by government estimate, another 100,000 awaiting development. Saint Anthony and Saint Croix Falls, Thompson Dam, in the Saint Louis River, and Coon Creek in the Mississippi are the chief points of contact with an electric system that promises to complete many other projects in the near future. Coal enters the State over Lake Superior, and is stored, pending shipment to various manufacturing points, at the Duluth docks. See DULUTH - Commerce.

Banks and Banking.— Minnesota has carefully drawn laws governing banking operations. There are no private banks. All State banks are subject to inspection of the bank examiner. In 1917 there were 1,125 of these banks. Their capital was $23,612,500; their deposits, $259,277,135. The list of State banks includes nine savings banks, capitalized at $350,000, with deposits at $36,719,749. There are 294 national banks with a total capital of $32,506,000 and deposits of $289,031,000; and 12 trust companies, capitalized at $4,260,000. At Minneapolis is the

Federal Reserve bank for the Ninth District; and at Saint Paul is the Federal Farm Loan Bank for the Northwest territory.

Finance. Under the direction of the Minnesota Tax Commission all assessments in the State are reviewed, first by the local board, then by the county board to adjust differences between districts, and finally by the commission to arbitrate between counties. Personal property of the first class, including iron ore, in stack piles, is assessed at 50 per cent of its value; personal property of the second class, including livestock, manufacturers' materials and automobiles, bears an assessment on 333 per cent of its value; and personal property of the third class, or household goods beyond exemption of $100, is assessed at 25 per cent of its value. All credits and money is assessed at full value. Rural real estate is taxed at 333 per cent and urban real estate at 40 per cent of its value. Railroads and telegraph and telephone lines pay a gross earnings tax of 5 per cent and 3 per cent respectively. On this basis the State assessed in 1917 its personal property, $263,193,685; its real estate, $1,403,409,459; and its money and credits, $284,968,875. The true and full value of its real estate was $3,684,054,371, and of its personal property, $778,612,283. In 1896 the State treasurer reported receipts from all sources of $5,482,876; in 1916 of $20,061,320. For defraying the general expenses of the State government and activities there was of this sum $17,800,000 available; the remainder was credited to various school funds, certificates of indebtedness and the prison revolving fund in amounts of $3,645,225, $3,275,930 and $2,077,813 respectively. Of each dollar received by the treasurer for defraying general expenses, 35.47 cents came from general property taxes, 30.80 from railroad taxes, including freight lines and sleeping-car companies, 9.89 from interest on State lands, State loans and trust funds, 6.80 from various State institutions, 6.64 from departments, 3.78 from inheritances, 2.86 from insurance companies, 1.42 from the State prison and 2.34 from miscellaneous sources. The present rate of State taxation is 3.80 for general expenses, and 2.23 for school and university.

A great asset of the State is its land which is held in trust for the school, university and for permanent improvements. The State owns 2,000,000 acres which, by law passed by the first State legislature, may not be sold for less than $5 per acre, and are actually being sold at a minimum price of $10. The accumulation of the funds received for land already sold amounts to $36,288,569, which is invested under the direction of the State board of investment. The income derived from this investment is apportioned among the schools of the State according to their status (see Education). The State owns buildings worth $19,000,000.

Transportation.- Owing to the early settlement of the Saint Croix and Mississippi valleys, the Twin Cities became the railroad centre of the State. Later Duluth developed in commercial importance. A glance at the map shows two great wheel-like systems radiating from these centres, and so intersecting as to provide all parts of the State with transportation. Entering the Twin Cities through Wisconsin are the Minneapolis, Saint Paul and Sault Sainte Marie (Soo Line), two lines; the Chi

cago, Saint Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. On the west bank of the Mississippi the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul, two lines, Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, Chicago and Great Western, Minneapolis and Saint Louis and the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha. Westward from the Twin Cities run lines of the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul, the Minneapolis and Saint Louis and Great Northern, and northwestward to the Red River Valley and Manitoba, the Great Northern, Northern Pacific and Minneapolis, Saint Paul and Sault Sainte Marie. These last three systems, each with two lines, connect Duluth with the Twin Cities; and also put it within easy communication with the Dakotas and Canada. Two short lines connect Duluth with the iron ranges, and the Canadian Northern gives it additional advantages for both Western and Eastern trade. The Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul, Great Northern and Northern Pacific are transcontinental lines, and hence put Minnesota within reach of the great Western Territory with its rapidly increasing commerce and industry. Electric and other lines are developing the more closely populated districts. In all there are 42 companies listed in the report of the railroad and warehouse commission with a total mileage of 9,102, a capitalization of 1,509,349,088, gross earnings of $121,821,203 and net earnings of $54,988,303. These companies in 1916 paid dividends from net earnings of $56,997,194, and from surplus of $33,260,818. They paid to the State in gross earnings a total of $5,436,572. Their bonded indebtedness is $2,034,479,307; their total investment $4,159,487,932.

Water transportation is due to become more of a factor in solving the commercial problem of the State now that the government high dam at Minneapolis is completed, making possible navigation on the Mississippi to that point. For satistics on river navigation and lake trade see articles on SAINT PAUL and DULUTH.

Under the direction of the State Highway Commission and with the aid of laws that take the building of roads from limited local jurisdiction the highways of the State are being greatly improved. The stone and gravel that are easily accessible are being used in road construction with the result that districts in the remote parts of the State are now reached by permanent roads. This is especially true of the northern part of the State. The legislature of 1919 adopted an amendment to be voted on in 1920 allowing the State to issue $10,000,000 a year to a total of $75,000,000, allowing counties to issue up to $250,000. This promises to give the State $109,000,000 for roads within a few

years.

Education. With an annual income of over a million and a half dollars from the permanent school fund, Minnesota is able to encourage all of the local school districts to sustain a high educational standard; at the same time care has been taken to conserve the initiative of these districts by withholding State aid from all that do not meet certain requirements. An attendance of 100 days must be credited to each pupil counted in the number attending a school for a year on which the apportionment is based; a sanitary building properly equipped and teachers graduated from

a normal course are other requirements for general aid. Special aid is given to schools that sustain normal courses, agricultural instruction, manual training and domestic science departments. One of the most recent and most effective movements in education is the consolidation of rural schools to provide for grading and more efficient teaching. In 1916 there were 139 such schools in the State, and the number is rapidly increasing. The schools are classified as either rural, consolidated, semigraded, graded and high. Districts are either common, independent or special, the last being a classification for cities such as Minneapolis. Common school districts are governed by the voters in mass meeting who elect and direct a board of three members how to administer the affairs outside of the detailed management of the school. The independent district is somewhat freer of control by the people, but cannot spend money for sites or buildings except as directed by vote. A consolidated district may be either common or independent.

There has been a great growth during the past few years. In 1912 the number of men teaching in the State was 1,720; in 1916 it was 1,952, an increase of 14 per cent despite a loss of 20 per cent in men teaching rural schools due to consolidation. The increase of men in graded and high schools in the four years was 46 per cent. Similarly wages increased from $54 for men and $45 for women in the rural schools, and $109 for men and $57 for women in the graded and high schools, to $113 for men and $64 for women in the rural schools and $145 for men and $78 for women in the graded and high schools. Of the teachers employed in 1916 in the rural districts 3,777 had had a high school training, 3,076 a high school and normal course, 682 a normal training and 191 college training. In the high and graded schools 2,132 were high school graduates; 172 had had high school normal training, 4,684 normal and 2,414 college training. In four years the number of normal graduates had increased 18 per cent, the number of college graduates 40 per cent. In all there were employed during 1916 17,793 teachers. The total enrolment was 481,583. The schoolhouses numbered 9,400, valued at $47,459,317. There were 7,630 libraries containing 1,824,832 volumes. In 1916 $21,821,468 was expended in the State for education.

Higher education is carried on in the five normal schools and in the University of Minnesota. These normals are located at Winona, Mankato, Saint Cloud, Moorhead and Duluth, the university at Minneapolis. The normals enrolled 4,208 pupils and in 1916 graduated 728 pupils, a gain of 147 over 1912. The university enrolled 13,279, of whom 5,725 were in the colleges of liberal arts, engineering and mechanic arts, mining, agriculture, law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and education; and in the schools of analytical and applied chemistry, school for nurses and graduate school. In the various agricultural courses and in the extension division there were 7,554 enrolled. Like the common schools the university has invested funds derived from the sale of lands amounting to $1,647,059. On 6 May 1915 the regents adopted a recommendation to establish at Rochester graduate research in co-operation with the Mayo Foundation. This provides a