5,756 native workers and teachers in India, Ceylon, South Africa, China, Polynesia and the West Indies.

Before this extension of Wesleyan missions took place a surprising outburst of zeal for the missionary idea appeared almost simultaneously in England, in the United States and on the Continent of Europe. It was a revolution, since formalism had made the Protestant churches almost forget that to be a Christian means to be always in some sense a missionary. The characteristic feature of the movement was its origin in the conscientious convictions of isolated individuals, from whom the Church did not expect initiative and whom it sometimes regarded as unsteady enthusiasts. William Carey, a cobbler and a Baptist minister in England, made the first move in 1786 and was frowned down by his elders. But in 1792 his earnest conviction carried the day; 12 men united to form the Baptist Missionary Society (England), and Carey and Thomas went to India as its first missionaries. There is no space here to describe the marvelous activities of Carey and his associates Marshman, Ward and others, at the Danish trading post of Serampur near Calcutta, where they were given asylum when the East India Company refused to tolerate their presence in its territories. The great school buildings which these missionaries erected at Serampur stands to-day, and their press added to the then slender stock of Bible translations passably good versions of Scripture in 34 Oriental languages and dialects. The Baptist Missionary Society has (1915) 477 missionaries and 2,000 native preachers and teachers in India, Ceylon, China, Africa and the West Indies.

This example was contagious. In 1795 "The Missionary Society" was formed in London by the union of notable men of four different denominations. Its name was afterward changed to "The London Missionary Society." It is (1915) substantially composed of Independents (Congregationalists) alone, and has 480 missionaries and 7,000 native preachers and teachers, in Polynesia, New Guinea, Madagascar, Africa, India and China. In 1796 two similar societies were formed in Scotland which at first aided the London Society, but later took up independent work in the West Indies and in South Africa, and finally (1824) became merged in the Church of Scotland Foreign Missionary Committee, of which a later (1843) offshoot was what has now become the Foreign Missionary Society of the United Free Church of Scotland. The Church of Scotland Foreign Missionary Committee now has 120 missionaries and 1,200 native workers, and the United Free Church has 541 missionaries and 5,093 native preachers and teachers in India, China, Africa, Arabia, the New Hebrides, Manchuria and the West Indies. The same impulse led in 1797 to the formation in Holland of the Netherlands Missionary Society. This was first an auxiliary of the London Missionary Society but soon undertook independent work. In 1913 it had 63 missionaries and 154 native workers in the Dutch East Indies.

The same conviction of responsibility together with realization of the extent and condition of the heathen world led in 1797 to the organization in London of 26 men belonging to the Church of England as the "Society for

Missions to Africa and the East." This name later gave place to the familiar one of the "Church Missionary Society." Among its founders were William Wilberforce, Henry Venn and Charles Simeon; but the Church of England gave the Society no encouragement until the successes of nearly 50 years compelled recognition. Hence the first missionaries of this Society were commonly Germans; for the most part men of the highest ability and attainments. The fields of the Church Missionary Society are India, Ceylon, China, Japan, Africa, Mauritius, New Zealand, Persia, Palestine, Egypt, the Sudan and the Arctic regions of British North America. It has (1915) 1,369 missionaries and 11,181 native preachers and teachers.

Missionary enterprises next began to spring up in Germany and in America. The marked characteristic of the movement in every case was the same profound conviction of individuals, commonly not officials of the churches to which they belonged. Five students of Williams College in Massachusetts furnished the initiative that resulted in the organization of the "American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions" in 1810. This was at first an interdenominational society. Its first missionaries, Newell, Judson, Hall, Rice and Nott, were sent to India and were ordered out of the country by the East India Company the moment they landed. Judson and Rice took refuge with the English Baptists at Serampur, while the others succeeded in effect.ng a lodgment at Bombay and in Ceylon. The fields of this Society in 1915 were India, China, Japan, Ceylon, Africa, the Balkan States, Turkey, Austria, Spain, Mexico, the Philippines and Micronesia. Its missionaries number 656 and its native laborers 4,777. After 40 years of existence as an interdenominational society, it handed over its missions in Persia, Syria and the Gabun region of West Africa to the Presbyterians, and part of its field in South India to the American Reformed (Dutch) Church, and has become substantially a Congregationalist body. Judson and Rice of the earliest missionaries of this Society decided on arriving in India that they would prefer to serve under a Baptist organization and this decision led to the formation in 1814 of what is now the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society of Boston. Burma was the field selected for its first efforts and the heroic work of Adoniram Judson in that land made his name great among modern Protestant missionaries. The Society had in 1915 701 missionaries and 8,589 native laborers in Burma, Siam, Assam, India, China, Japan, the Philippines and Africa.

Meantime, in Germany, Jannicke of Berlin, whose brother was a missionary of the "Danish Halle" band in South India, opened a Missionary Training School at Berlin in 1800. This school during the next 25 years furnished about 80 missionaries to the service of the English and Dutch societies, and served to arouse interest in missions among the Germans. Its influence led in 1815 to the establishment of a Missionary Training Institute at Basel in German Switzerland. The latter institute furnished many admirable men to the service of other societies and in 1822 began to send out missionaries of its own. The fields of the Basel Missionary Society are in India, China and Africa,

and graduates of its institute are pastors of Protestant churches in Turkey. In 1913 it had in the field about 475 missionaries and 624 native workers.

In 1824 10 strong men in the Lutheran Church, among whom were Neander and Tholuck, formed the Berlin Missionary Society; beginning operations, according to the wise continental practice, by opening a training school for missionaries. It began to send out missionaries in 1834 and now carries on missions in Africa and China. It had in 1913 about 150 missionaries (wives of missionaries not counted) and 1,000 native preachers and teachers. Other missionary societies sprang up in Germany during the first quarter of the 19th century. Of these the Rhenish Missionary Society is perhaps the largest. Its fields were in South Africa, China, Sumatra, Borneo and New Guinea. It has 382 missionaries and 1,340 native laborers. There are a score, at least, of other German missionary societies of which the chief are the Gossner Society, the Hermannsburg, the Leipzig, the North German and the Breklum societies, working in the Dutch East Indies, Africa, India, China, Australia and Turkey.

The same period saw the formation in France of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society (1824), designed at first merely to aid existing enterprises, but quickly beginning to send out missionaries of its own. In 1913 it had 173 missionaries, men and women, and 1,274 native workers, in Madagascar, Senegambia and the Barotse and Basuto regions of Africa. With the development of French colonial expansion it has also taken the place of the London Missionary Society's missionaries in Tahiti and in parts of Madagascar, and of American missionaries in the French Kongo region. Protestant missionary societies in Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Finland sprang later from the same causes and are doing good work with 831 missionaries and about 4,000 native workers in Africa, India, China, Chinese Turkestan and Madagascar.

The same spiritual awakening of widespread effects gave rise also to the British and Foreign Bible Society (1804), the American Bible Society (1816), the Netherlands Bible Society, and Religious Tract Society of London (1799) and the American Tract Society of New York (1820). The Bible societies do true foreign missionary work in publishing the Scriptures as soon as missionaries have translated them into the languages of non-Christian peoples and in disseminating the Scriptures in these languages. Some 500 modern translations have been published. The British and Foreign Bible Society in 1915 employed about 2,000 colporteurs and Bible women and its total issues of Bibles, New Testaments and lesser parts of Scripture amounted to 11,059,617 copies. The American Bible Society has about 1,500 colporteurs in foreign mission fields and issued in 1915 7,150,911 copies. The Scottish National Bible Society issued in the same year over 2,500,000 copies, besides joining with the first named societies in providing finances for translating and publishing the Bible in various languages.

The tract societies aid missions in a similar manner; providing funds for the publication of undenominational Christian literature in the languages of non-Christian peoples. The Reli

gious Tract Society of London at its centennial anniversary was able to report that it had given for this purpose to English and American foreign missions aid equivalent to $100 per day during the whole period of its existence.

own.

In the second quarter of the 19th century the American Methodist Episcopal Church and the American Presbyterian Church began their missionary work in foreign lands. The two great branches of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1915 had 1,199 missionaries and 10,800 native laborers. The Presbyterians North and South have 1,551 missionaries and 6,866 native laborers. Almost all denominations in the United States and in Great Britain now have foreign missionary organizations of their Interdenominational and international missionary societies, like the China Inland Mission, the North Africa Mission, the Christian and Missionary Alliance and other bodies of greater or less importance have been formed to carry on missionary enterprises by methods more free from machinery than the older societies sometimes seem to require. The total number of Protestant missionary societies now existing probably exceeds 500. The World War has interfered with collection of statistics, but in 1912 these societies reported 24,092 missionaries, men and women, and 111,862 native workers.

Four points are noteworthy, in the history of the development of these missionary societies, as each marking an epoch of expansion of their scope. These are: (1) The adoption of education as a missionary agency; (2) The general adoption by women of mission work for womankind; (3) The establishment of medical missions; (4) The opening of industrial departments in many missions.

1. Education.- The aim of foreign missions is to tell of Jesus Christ to those who do not know Him. The aim is to lead them to surrender self-will to the control of Jesus Christ so completely that converts shall be true Christians, who, if the missionary leaves to-morrow, will stand immovable in their devotion and their impulse to teach others the truth that has benefited themselves. At the outset the task seemed simple enough. To preach and preach again was all that was necessary. As a result of the first half century of experience, the discovery was made that common schools are essential in all missions which urge the reading of the Bible. Rev. Dr. Alexander Duff, a missionary from Scotland who left ineffaceable marks upon India, was a leader in championing the thesis that education in all grades is also an essential department of missionary effort. This principle is now established with all that it means of general enlightenment for backward races, and in 1912 there were in the Protestant missions throughout the world 35,000 educational establishments of all grades from kindergarten to university, attended by about 1,670,000 young people of every form of religious belief."

2. Woman's Work. As early as 1825 missionaries undertook the education of girls in India, Africa, Turkey and elsewhere. In 1835 a Woman's Missionary Society was formed at Berlin, Germany, for the instruction of women in the East; and later schools for girls were opened in several non-Christian lands by different missionary societies. It was not until 1860 that the women of Christian lands began

to take the matter into their own hands. Beginning with the Woman's Union Missionary Society of New York (1860), mission boards of women were organized in almost all the Protestant denominations of Great Britain, Canada and the United States. These missionary societies of women are for the most part closely allied to the general missionary boards of the denominations to which they belong, but they send out women as missionaries and have produced vast extension of the scope of the missionary enterprise. The impossibility of carrying on successful missions without women missionaries to win and instruct their own sex is now fully recognized. There were in 1912 about 2,968 unmarried women working as missionaries in all parts of the non-Christian world. No mission field is so dangerous or so repellent in its barbarism as to be denied the ministering service of devoted women of Christendom.

3. Medical Missions. At the outset physicians were sent to the missions with the primary duty of caring for the health of missionaries. They could not, however. fail to use their knowledge for the relief of suffering in lands where surgery was unknown and the science of medicine parodied. It was not until about 1885 that the Medical Mission was fairly established as a recognized channel of missionary influence. Since that time the number of missionary physicians, both men and women, and of missionary hospitals and dispensaries has increased every year. In 1912 there were 800 men and women physicians and surgeons, with 1,638 hospitals and dispensaries in connection with foreign mission fields.

4. Results of Foreign Missions. It used to be common for critics of missions to picture bewilderment among pagan hearers as a necessary result of denominational differences among missionary preachers. But the gospel preached to pagans by Protestant missionaries of different denominations is one in essence, and the problems of missionary effort in all fields are much alike. Sixty years ago missionaries of different denominations at work in India conferred together on the more efficient prosecution of the common work. The advantage of such conferences was so clear that the solidarity of the different missions may be set down as one result of the missionary enterprise. Conferences between the different missions are now held regularly in many foreign lands. Moreover general conferences of the societies of different nations have been held with notable advantage to the cause of missions. Such was the Conference of London in 1888, the Ecumenical Conference on Foreign Missions held in New York in 1900 and the World Foreign Missions Conference of Edinburgh in 1910. The Latin America Mission Conference of 1916 was a gathering of the same nature which brought together at Panama almost 500 missionaries and friends of missions from 21 nations. An annual assembly of the same class is the Foreign Missions Conference of the United States and Canada which brings together representatives of more than 40 missionary societies. annual conferences are held in Great Britain and in Germany. Fruits of such gatherings are increase of sympathy and comity and diminution of possible causes of friction between different denominations and a steady advance in efficiency and economy on the foreign field. At

Similar

home this unification of missionary interest has produced such interdenominational enterprises for the support of foreign missions as the Missionary Education Movement, the Student Volunteer Movement and the Laymen's Missionary Movement.

In 1912 the stations of foreign missionaries numbered 12,123 besides about 38,000 other places more or less regularly visited. The organized congregations were 15,396. In connection with these congregations the number of persons in full church membership was 2,644,170. Figures are proverbially uncertain agents for setting forth facts and their meaning. In any general statement such as is here attempted it should be remembered that before statistics can be gathered from the wide areas concerned many of the details will not be up to date. One thing that should be clear to the reader of this article, however, is the widening of the scope of foreign missions since the first fruition of the missionary idea in the modern Christian Church. This expansion of the scope of missions is not due to any modification of their fundamental purpose. It is due to experience of the needs of non-Christian peoples and especially of their need of a future nurture similar to that enjoyed by Christians at home. Let no one forget that no miraculous short cut exists by which a pagan savage can be transformed into a Christian gentleman of culture. The planting of the aspiration is a miracle, but a majority of converts remain children in development. Some may use this fact to belittle the moral change seen in multitudes. The number of converts who do become leaders in the mission churches is not thus to be set aside. Men from the lowest classes have risen through devotion to Jesus Christ to the highest ability, like the slave-boy Crowther of Yorubaland and Constantian of Turkey who became eminent among Bible translators; or like Abdul Masih and Imaduddin of India, whose work among their own people as Christian ministers was that of masters of apologetics; or like Dr. Saleeby of the Philippine Islands, once a village boy in Mount Lebanon, whose fitness for good service was grounded on the instruction received in American mission schools in Syria. The clean and kindly lives of converts in the mission fields, their sincerity and stability influence their people. Of the 150,000 persons received into Church membership in foreign missions during 1912, it is not rash to estimate one-half as having been won to a serious study of Christianity by the subtle influence of the lives of Christian acquaintances. Furthermore the high qualities discovered in Christians often produce a gradual moral uplift among those who have not accepted the religious message of the missionary. It is a significant fact that in 1912 the missionary societies reported as income from the mission field $7,902,256. This money came in part, of course, from church collections, but a large part came from non-Christian patrons of mission schools and patients in mission hospitals. The Bible is widely circulated in mission fields. Some of the people decline to admit its authority as containing the principles of life on which must depend the stability of the universe; but they do regard it as a repository of experiences of men, wise and unwise, through many ages of time. These records sharply touch their own problems of life and

character. In 1915 a Chinese official, not a Christian, bought in Peking several thousand copies of the New Testament in Chinese which he gave to friends and subordinates as containing the noblest scheme of moral conduct which the world has ever known.

Add to such by-products of foreign missions the direct fruits of missionary effort in endowing illiterate languages with alphabet and writings, in purifying literary thought and expression in languages which already have literature, in enlightening womankind, hitherto guarded against culture, in training children and youth, in teaching an industrial efficiency which touches the world's commercial interests, and one gains fuller comprehension of the results of foreign missions. This vast enterprise so reaches the source of social development among those masses with whom is the reserve vitality of every nation that it must be reckoned among the great agencies by which Europe and America are shaping the destinies of backward races throughout the world.

The outbreak of the Great War in 1914 created a reaction against Christianity throughout the mission fields of the world which prevailed until the East understood that the British Empire, and later the United States, were both fighting for justice and righteousness and for the rights of unprotected humanity. German foreign missions naturally suffered during the defeat of the nation which had violated the fundamental principle of Christianity, "Peace on EarthGod's will to men," and the interdenominational, international missionary organizations which reached their culmination at the Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910 were, for the time, disorganized. The continuation committee there launched had been remarkably successful in binding under one organization the Protestant missionary forces of the world.

By the stand of the British Empire and America, North and South, a reaction occurred which increased the endeavors of Protestant foreign mission work as shown in the statistics presented at the Foreign Mission Conference of North America at Garden City, N. Y., in 1918. Gratifying increase was shown along all lines of foreign missionary endeavor and was best exemplified by the grand total of the incomes of the affiliated societies, representing as far as it was possible to be ascertained the amount given in Canada and the United States for carrying on foreign Protestant missionary enterprise. Of the total amount, $18,500,000 were given by living donors, a balance of nearly $2,000,000 representing the incomes from legacies, endowments and other sources. Exclusive of the income of the societies derived from the mission fields themselves, the total income amounted to $20,400,000 as compared to $16,939,741 in 1915 and $11,946,218 in 1910. Officially advanced by the National Missionary Society of Sweden in a communication to Secretary James L. Barton, chairman of the American National Committee, representing the mission societies of North America, the suggestion is to be acted upon, although many difficulties appear in the way of the achievement: "Whether plans should not be inaugurated by the Protestant missionary bodies of the world to put all foreign work upon a supernational basis so that in case of any future war, no

matter what countries were involved, their institutions and their work should remain absolutely undisturbed?"

(

Bibliography. The literature of foreign missions is enormous. Only a few standard works can here be suggested. Dr. S. M. Jackson's Bibliography of Foreign Missions' (1891) may well be consulted. General Surveys and Statistics: Warneck, 'Outlines of a History of Protestant Missions' (1907); Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions (1902); World Atlas of Christian Missions,' Student Volunteer Movement (1917); Bliss, E. M., Encyclopedia of Missions (2 vols., 1891); Dwight, Bliss and Tupper, New Encyclopedia of Missions) (1904); Dwight, H. O., The Blue Book of Missions' (1907); Barnes, L. C., 'Two Thousand Years of Missions before Carey (1901). Missionary Societies: Lovett, R., History of the London Missionary Society (2 vols., 1895); Stock, E., 'History of the Church Missionary Society' (3' vols., 1899); Hamilton, L. T., Moravian Missions (1901); Pascoe, C. F., Two Hundred Years of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1901); Merriam, E. F., 'History of the American Baptist Missions' (1902); Strong, W. E., 'Story of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions' (1910); Canton, 'History of the British and Foreign Bible Society (5 vols., 1904); Dwight, Centennial History of the American Bible Society' (1916); Report of the Centenary Missionary Conference (London 1888); Report of the Ecumenical Conference (New York 1900); Reports of the World Missionary Conference (Edinburgh 1910); Dennis, Christian Missions and Social Progress (3 vols., 18971906). On Special Fields: Reports of the great Shanghai Conference (1907); MacGillivray, China Missions' Year Book) (1915); Gibson, Mission Problems and Mission Methods in South China' (1893); Inglis, 'India's Protestant Missionary Directory (1915); Jones, 'India's Problem' (1903); Dearing and others, The Christian Movement in Japan' (1915); Stewart, 'Dawn in the Dark Continent' (1903); Stock, "The Story of Uganda' (1894); Curtis, The Laos of North Siam' (1903); Brown, The New Era in the Philippines' (1903); Zwemer, 'Mohammed Christ? (1916); Wilson, Modern Movements among Moslems' (1915); Dwight, 'Constantinople and its Problems' (1901); Beach and others, 'Protestant Missions in South America (1900); St. John, B., A Comparison_in Missionary Statistics (in The Missionary Review of the World, Vol. XLI, pp. 356–359, New York 1918).

HENRY O. DWIGHT,

or

Author of 'Blue Book of Missions, etc. MISSIONS, Protestant Home. Home missionary effort in the United States is older than its organized form. Before the War of the Revolution individual churches in New England and New York were sending their pastors, for weeks or months at a time, into the new settlements, to preach the Gospel and administer the ordinances of religion. Connecticut pastors received for this service $4 a week, and $4 more were allowed for the supply of their pulpits, the money being raised by voluntary subscriptions among the home churches. These

desultory efforts continued more or less intermittently for 25 years; they were warmly welcomed by the struggling settlements and were influential in preparing the way for better organized endeavors.

Organized American home missions began with the establishment of the "Missionary Society of Connecticut," 21 June 1798, by the Congregational churches of that State. Massachusetts Congregationalists followed one year later, 1799, with the "Massachusetts Missionary Society." Both of these Societies, bearing the names of the States where they originated, and supported by the States whose names they bear, were not primarily for the benefit of Connecticut and Massachusetts. The object of the Connecticut Society, as stated in its charter, was "to Christianize the heathen (Indians) of North America and to support and promote Christian Knowledge in the New Settlements of the United States." The charter of the Massachusetts Society describes its object as being "to diffuse the Gospel among the heathen (Indians) as well as other peoples in the remote parts of our country." Both Societies, therefore, while local in their origin and support, were truly national in spirit and aim. Other New England States followed the lead of Connecticut and Massachusetts in organizing similar societies; New Hampshire in 1801; Rhode Island in 1803; Maine and Vermont in 1807, all of them under Congregational auspices. They all continue to the present time with but slight changes in name, and with increasing devotion to home missions, State and national. The first organized movement on the part of the Baptist churches was made in 1802, when the "Massachusetts Domestic Missionary Society" was established at Boston, with the same broad object as its Congregational predecessors, namely, "to furnish occasional preaching and to promote the knowledge of evangelistic truth in the new settlements of these United States, or further, if circumstances should render it proper." To the same year 1802 belongs the first systematic effort of the Presbyterians of New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, acting under the same broad charter with those of the Congregationalists and Baptists of New England; "to send forth missionaries well qualified to be employed in mission work on the frontiers, for the purpose of organizing churches, administering ordinances, ordaining elders, collecting information concerning the state of religion in those parts, and preparing the best means of establishing a Gospel ministry among the people." Meanwhile the Reformed Church of America had not been idle. Sporadic missionary work began with it as early as 1786, culminating in 1822 in the organization of the "Missionary Society of the Reformed Dutch Church," differing nothing in spirit from its forerunners, but with a wider scope, as it included home and foreign missions under a single organization. Methodist and Episcopal missions, as well as the Lutheran and those of the Disciples of Christ, belong necessarily to a later period.

It is important, historically, to remember that all these early missionary bodies were called into being by one motive and for one object. Barbarism in the new settlements was the common dread of the East, and to prevent such a disaster by pre-empting those rapidly gathering communities with religious institutions was the

motive of all early home missionary organizations. At the opening of the 19th century, what was known as the new settlements were found mainly in northern New England, eastern and central New York and northern and southern Ohio, and these were the first points of home missionary attack. The opening of the Northwest Territory and the passage of the Ordinance of 1787 attracted a stream of emigration from the East, mingling with which was a considerable element from Great Britain, Holland, Scandinavia, Germany and Moravia, Belgium and Switzerland. The earlier settlers in New York, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois were generally Protestant in their sympathies, but unable at once, with a new country to subdue and new homes to be built, to provide themselves with the institutions of worship. To the help of these hopeful but destitute settlers came the missionary organizations of the East. Their missionaries were hurried forward to every needy point, not only in the wilds of New York and Ohio, but to the remoter settlements of Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee. They even found their way down the Mississippi to New Orleans and crossed the northern borders to Canada. A specially promising field of effort was a section of Ohio, bordering on Lake Erie, settled chiefly by emigrants from Connecticut and for this reason commonly known as "New Connecticut." At the beginning of the century the tract contained about 1,400 inhabitants. In 1804, it had 400 families; one year later the 400 had become 1,100, one-half of them from New England. In less than 30 years from the beginning of organized home missions 90 churches had been planted, all of them by home missionaries sent out and supported by Connecticut and Massachusetts. To sum up in a sentence the work of the Missionary Society of Connecticut at the end of 30 years, 200 missionaries had been employed whose joint labors were equivalent to 500 years of ordinary service by one man, and 400 churches had been established in the new settlements of the land. With what wear and tear of body, with what sacrifice of comforts in the wilderness, with what patience of hope and courage of faith and labors of love, no words can fitly portray. Not a mile of railroad had been built. The river and the canal, the stage coach, the emigrant wagon and the saddle, were the only conveniences of travel, and to these the missionary added footsore and weary tramps from settlement to settlement. During the same period 125 Puritan churches had been gathered in the growing settlements of New York State, supported in whole or in part by home missionary funds.

All these earlier efforts were marked by a commendable absence of the sectarian spirit. A common danger threatened the nation. The problem presented to the churches of the East was how to overtake the new and rapidly multiplying settlements with the means of Christian civilization. No rivalry entered into the struggle but only a strong sense of the need of prompt, united action. In their love of humanity and of country every thought of denominational supremacy was buried under the all-absorbing issue whether the New America should be heathen or Christian. This spirit was particularly active between Presbyterians and Congregationalists which were then the strongest church bodies in the land; for 50 years, be