MOHAMMEDAN SECTS Ali and his wife, who have become almost tutelar deities and endowed with superhuman dignities. It was only a short step to Gnosticism, which also developed in Islam, due largely to Babylonian and Persian ideas. The present day Druses constitute one of the sects that show the survival of these tendencies. The dissatisfaction in the Eastern half of the caliphate with the Omayyad dynasty gave impetus to Shi'ites growth and many leaders founded sects of their own, with some of which obedience to a person not to law was inculcated as a religion. There is little doubt that the decline of the Omayyads and the success of the Abbasids was due in considerable measure to the aid of the Shi'ites, the early caliphs of that dynasty, until Motawakkil, belonging to that sect. The Shi'ites are divided by Shahrastani into five divisions, of which the Isma'lites, the followers of Isma'il, the sixth Imam, have given rise, owing to the propaganda of Abd Allah ibn Maimun, to the Carmathians, Fatimites, the Assassins and the Druses. In Persia the Shah is the temporary substitute for the vanished Imam. The differences of the Shi'ites apart from the question of the succession are due to adapting the rites of Islam to the Persian nationality and concern minor matters of ritual. They have their own collection of traditions, but the prayers are almost identical with those of the Sunnites, although there is no obligation to attend public worship in the lack of a legitimate Imam. Saints are feasts are zealously worshiped — religious multiplied. The Koran is also their source of law. Next to the clergy (Mollahs), the dervishes wield the greatest religious influence. New sects appear among the Shi'ites from time to time the latest being Babism, founded in Persia (1844-45) by Mirza Ali Mohammed and his successors, who held to the view of progressive revelation and display a high intelligence and ethical strength at least in later writings. The sects that have survived and represent the great majority in Islam have been briefly mentioned as followers of the Sunna. The Hanafites spring from the school of the Imam Abu Hanifah (767), predominating to-day in Turkey, central Asia and in India. The Shafiites, called after Imam Al Shafii (d. 819), are to be met in Egypt, southern Arabia, the Dutch colonies and in German East Africa. The Malikites, named after Malik Ibn Anas, the famous Imam of Medina (d. 795), can be found in northern Africa and in Upper Egypt. The Hanbalites, rigid traditionalists, with the accompanying fanaticism, look back to Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855). Declining after the 15th century, the sect or school revived in the 18th, when the Wahabite movement arose in central Arabia, adopting its viewpoint of reform. Corresponding to the monastic orders in Europe, brotherhoods have arisen in Islam, which assume the importance of distinct sects, like the order of dervishes. The latest is the Brotherhood of As-Sanusi, established in 1837, of a "severely reforming and puritanic character," as Macdonald expresses it. Holding to the strictist monotheism, all customs and ideas that "do not accord with the view of the exact letter" of the Koran are prohibited. A theocratic state has been founded in the eastern Sahara, between Egypt and Tripoli, from which mis sionaries are sent to establish houses throughout North Africa and Morocco and far into the interior. Mecca is an important centre for the new cult, into which pilgrims and the Bedouin are initiated in large numbers. In marked contrast are the Ibadites, who take their name from Ibn Ibad, associated with one of the earliest Mohammedan sects. They are found in Zanzibar and the coast of East Africa and in Algeria, where they maintain a certain simplicity and hold their primitive theological and legal views. It is forbidden them to marry other Muslims. The Ibadites in reality go back to the more modern elements of the Kharijites, one of the earliest parties in Islam, who organized themselves after Ali's rejection for the caliphate as an independent body. Literally "goers out," as the name implies, they are opposed to all other parties, as renegades to be killed at sight. Their democracy was absolute the caliph could be of any family, to be elected and deposed by the entire Muslim community. A picturesque if narrow sect, they have maintained themselves as an offshoot in a remote corner of the Islam world. sects arose In the days of Ommayad caliphate (661750) the three centres of religious thought Damascus, Medina and the East-were open to non-Mohammedan influences and two heretthe ical - the Murjiites and Qadarites. The former postponed - hence their name the judgment of human actions until the day of judgment. They held, too, that no believer in the unity of God and his apostle Mohammed would meet everlasting death- a heresy in that day. The Qadarites opposed predestination and free will and claimed that man had power over his actions-heretical doctrine in the world of Medina to be punished by death. In the East, with the Christians, Buddhists, Zoroastrians and the rest in close contact with the Mohammedans, rationalism arose in the sect of Mu'tazilites or "separatists," who wielded great influence and shared the favor of the state until 849, when orthodox doctrines again held sway. The Koran, tradition, reason, custom, were pivots upon which both schools of law and of theology turned, but although the schools were many not all gave rise to special sects that had any lengthy existence. The sect of the Mu'tazilites might have attained a much wider activity had not Ash'ari (873-935) in his 40th year changed from rationalist to orthodox and founded a scholastic theology of his own which was effective. Holding a mediate position between extreme views on most points, his platform became dominant among the Shafi'ites. He asserted that God's attributes cannot be compared to human attributes. As to free will, he maintained man's responsibility, if denying his power. Despite occasional attacks and persecutions, this theology made its way East and West and is the prevalent system. The system of al-Matiridi, a Hanifite (d. 945), is its only active opponent to-day, represented by the creed of an-Nasafi, still used as a textbook in schools. Of the 13 points of difference between Mataridi and Ash'ari, Macdonald states that Muslim theologians admit seven are not much more than combats of words. Even Ghazzali, in most respects the greatest and most representative of Muslim theologians, accepted the system of Ash'ari. Apart from the Wahabite movement in Arabia and the more recent Babism in Persia, Muslim orthodoxy has not been disturbed by new sects of any significance. Bibliography.- Goldziher, Ignaz, Mohammed Studien (Halle 1889-90); Hughes, A., ‘A Dictionary of Islam' (London 1885); Haarbrücker Asch-Scharastani's Religionsparteien, übersetzt und erklärt (Halle 1850-51); Macdonald, D. B., Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory (New York 1903, with four pages bibliography); Müller, 'Der Islam un Abendland' (Berlin 1885-87); Schreiner, Beit. zur Gesch. der Theolog. Beweg. in Islam' (Z. D. M. G. 11, pp. 463 ff. 513 ff.; 111, pp. 51 ff.); Sell, E., The Faith of Islam (London 1896); Steiner, 'Die Mu'taziliten (Leipzig 1865); Von Kremer, 'Gesch. der herrsch. Ideen des Islams' (Leipzig 1868), and his Culturgesch. des Orients unter den Chalifen (Leipzig 1873). Burton's Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah' (London 1898) throws light on present-day Mohammedan sects, despite the author's diffuse style. ABRAM S. ISAACS, Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, New York University. MOHAMMEDANISM is the term frequently given to the religion taught by Mohammed, but not used by the followers of that religion. Abu-Bekr, the first caliph, is reported to have said that it is not Mohammed, but the God of Mohammed, that we worship. The term by which the religion is known, wherever professed, is Islam, "submission to the will of God." Those who embrace Islam are called Muslim (frequently written Moslem), a participle of the same stem from which the verbal noun Islam is derived. Still another term, used as the equivalent for Moslem, is Mumin, "believer." It, likewise, is a participle, formed from the stem that gives rise to the word Imân, "faith." Islam is the religion professed by Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Turkestan and the Malay Peninsula. India has more than 57,000,000 Moslems. China has about 25,000,000. Owing to the great difficulty of securing exact figures, an accurate statement is impossible. It is generally estimated at 175,000,000. Islam is divided by the theologians into two heads: Imân, "faith," and Din, "practice." The separate articles of both heads are determined by the Koran, the Traditions or sayings of Mohammed and the decisions of the learned officials. Under Imân are given six cardinal points of belief, as follows: belief in God and his unity; belief in angels, and good and bad spirits; belief in the Koran and revelation; belief in the Prophet; belief in the resurrection and the judgment day; belief in God's absolute rule of the world. "There is no gɔd but Allah, and Mohammed is his envoy." As to Islam's conception of the deity He is above all omnipotent. No phrase occurs more frequently than this: "and He is powerful over all things." He is omniscient; "And He knoweth all things," is a phrase equally often met in the Koran. "With Him are the keys of the secret things; none knoweth them besides himself: He knoweth that which is on the dry land and in the sea; there falleth no leaf but He knoweth it; neither is there a single grain in the dark parts of the earth, neither a green thing nor a dry thing but it is written in the perspicuous book.» (Sura 6, 59). "He is the ever-living, eternal God." "God! there is no God but he; the living, the self-subsisting; neither slumber nor sleep seizeth him; to him belongeth whatsoever is in heaven or on earth." (Ibid.). He is, moreover, the creator of all things. "His is the kingdom of heaven and earth; he giveth life and he putteth to death; and he is almighty. He is the first and the last; the manifest and the hidden; and he knoweth all things. It is he who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and then ascended his throne." (Sura 57, v. 2). His word alone creates, "When he decreeth a thing, he only saith unto it, 'Be, and it is." (Sura 3, v. 4), cf. (Sura 11, v. 9). As a creator he works not as man works, "We created the heavens and the earth and whatever is between them, in six days, and no weariness affected us." (Sura 50, v. 37). He is not only creator of all things, but ruler of all things, and protector as well. "It is he who causeth you to sleep by night, and knoweth what ye merit by day; he also awaketh you therein, that the prefixed term of your lives may be fulfilled. He is supreme over his servants, and sendeth his guardian angels to watch over you, until, when death overtaketh one of you, our messengers cause him to die; and they will not neglect our commands. Say, who delivereth you from the darkness of the land, and of the sea, when ye call upon him humbly and in private, saying 'verily, if thou deliver us from these dangers, we will surely be thankful.' Say, God delivereth you from them and from every grief of mind." (Sura 6, v.). His care is always assured to those who follow his way. "Say, my Lord hath commanded me to observe justice; therefore set your face to pray at every place of worship, and call upon him, approving unto him the sincerity of your religion. A part of mankind hath he directed." (Sura 7, 28). "Whoever therefore shall deny Tagut (error) and believe in God, he shall surely take hold on a strong handle, which shall not be broken; God is he who heareth and seeth. God is the patron of those who believe; he shall lead them out of darkness into light." (Sura 2, v. 257). Though he is the ruler of all things and may do as seemeth good in his sight, yet is he a just God, and punishes only where punishment is due. "We will appoint just balances for the day of resurrection; neither shall any soul be injured at all; although the merit or guilt of an action be of the weight of a grain of mustard seed only, we will produce it publicly; and there will be sufficient accountants with us." (Sura 21, v. 48). Those who suffer have gone astray or are being prepared for better things. "Every soul shall taste of death; and we will prove you with evil and with good, for a trial of you." (Sura 21, v. 36). Of those sorely tried it is said: "I have this day rewarded them, for that they suffered the injuries ye offered them, with patience; verily they enjoy great felicity." (Sura 23, 113). As he is a just God, every creature is responsi ble to Him, and must answer for his choice of good or bad, "Did ye think that we had created you in sport, and that ye should not be brought again before us? whoever, together with the true God, shall invoke another god, concerning whom he hath no demonstrative proof, shall surely be brought to an account for the same before his Lord." (Ibid. v. 117). Though God is just, he is also merciful. "We do not lay upon any soul more than it can bear." (Sura 6, v. 153). Like the God of the Hebrews he puts off the evil day in the hope that man may repent. "If God should punish men for their iniquity, he would not leave on the earth any moving thing; but he giveth them respite unto an appointed time." (Sura 16, v. 163). God's absolute decree is a separate article (the sixth) of Iman. Everything that has happened or that will happen has been already Ixed by God. "Say, nothing shall befall us, but what God has decreed for us." (Sura 9, v. 51). "No soul can die unless by the permission of God, according to what is written in the book containing the determination of things." (Sura 3, v. 141. "He hath formed his creatures; and determined them to various ends, and directed them to attain the same." (Sura 87, v. 2). Mohammed was no theologian, however, so there arose no question about God's decree and man's free will. His attitude to the question may be shown by a quotation from sura 4, v. 80: "If good befall them they say it is from God; but if evil befall them, they say; this is from thee, O Mohammed: Say, all is from God; but what aileth these people that they are so far from understanding what is said unto them? Whatever good befalleth thee, O man, it is from God; and whatever evil befalleth thee, it is from thyself." There is one more aspect of the Moslem's belief in God that must not be neglected. It is the most important attribute of the deity, and its statement is found in sura 112: "Say, God is one God; the eternal God; he begetteth not, neither is he begotten; and there is not anyone like unto him." In sura 19, v. 91, we read: "They say, the Merciful has begotten issue. Now have ye uttered an impious thing." In Islam there is no Trinity; there is no Fatherhood; God has taken to himself no son; but is alone in his glory and power. Christ, to the Moslem, is a prophet. He was the word of God "conveyed into Mary." Islam, failing utterly to grasp the significance of Christ's life, could not accept the idea of his crucifixion. They have therefore found an end that they deem more worthy of a prophet, and in the Koran we read that one in the likeness of Christ was crucified. Joined to the statement of the first great truth of Islam, "There is no god but God," is another statement considered by Moslems to be just as important; "and Mohammed is the envoy of God." Concerning his divine mission, Islam knows no doubt. He was the last and the greatest of all the prophets "The seal of the Prophets." Of prophets, thousands are recognized by Islam; but there are six, only, deemed great enough to be the holder of a title; they are Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed. As a prophet, Mohammed announced himself to the world when he first recited the 96th sura: "Read in the name of thy Lord who hath created all things." He never claimed to be more than the envoy or prophet of God, and as such only is he reverenced by the intelligent Moslem. His tomb at Medina is an object of veneration to the Moslem world and should be visited by every pilgrim. His intercession may be asked in prayer; for he was the friend of God. Five times every day Islam testifies to its faith in God and its veneration for the prophet. Every Moslem must believe in revelation, "that which is sent down." (Sura 2, v. 3). Beginning from earliest times, there have been numerous revelations, each of which was a law for mankind, till superseded by the next. So each of the six prophets mentioned was the recipient of a revelation. Mohammed's revelation, the Koran, is the only one not to be abrogated. It is distinctly the Word of God as revealed to Mohammed and is on a higher plane than the Traditions or inspired sayings of the prophet. It was inscribed on tablets in heaven from eternity. From time to time portions of it were given to Mohammed by the angel Gabriel. The Moslem must believe, furthermore, in angels, of whom there are great numbers. They were created long before the world was and are of a finer material. Every believer has two recording angels; one for his good, the other for his bad deeds. The angels are charged with intercession for mankind. Certain angels preside over hell. Two important angels are Munkar and Nakir. There are four archangels: Gabriel, the angel of Revelation; Michael, the patron of the Israelites; Izrafel, who, on the last day, will blow the trumpet, and Azrael, the angel of death. Besides these angels there are the ginn, good and bad spirits, in whom Mohammed believed. Sura 72 states that a band of them once passed Mohammed and paused to listen to him. What they heard caused them to exclaim: "Verily, we have heard a marvelous discourse." Some of them are believers in Islam and perform all the duties that devolve upon the true believer. They may assume various forms and are so numerous that the pious Moslem, in performing the most trivial act, such as building a fire, is apt to exclaim "with your permission, ye blessed." By many it is believed that all ginn are to be destroyed on the last day; others believe there is to be a special place, outside of paradise, where such as have been believers may dwell. In the immortality of the soul, resurrection, judgment, paradise and hell, the Moslem believes most firmly. During the first night after death, the soul remains with the body, so that it may be questioned by the two angels Munkar and Nakir. It is a question as to whether the Koran refers to this belief or not; but nevertheless it is fixed in Islam. When the angels have finished their examination, they depart, leaving the believer in peace; the wicked in torment. This is the Moslem Hades. In Sura 23, v. 99, speaking of unbelievers who have died, it is said: "Behind them shall be a bar until the day of resurrection." The word translated by Sale "bar" is the Arabic barach, and is explained by the native commentators as a partition between the living and the day of judgment, or as an intervening state between death and judgment. Generally speaking, it denotes the state of the departed soul and must be entered by all. When the trumpet is blown on the last day all must appear. Mention of this day is very often made in the Koran, especially in the earlier suras. It is the one subject of suras 75, 81, 82, 83 and 84. On this day all actions shall be weighed. "Those whose balances shall be heavy with good works shall be happy; but those whose balances shall be light are those who shall lose their souls and shall remain in hell forever." (Sura 23, v. 104). This great day the coming of which is known to God alone, is to be ushered in by certain signs, divided into the "lesser" and the "greater." Of the former there are eight, such as decay of faith, turmoils, wars, etc.; of the latter there are 16, the sun will rise in the west; the Antichrist will appear; Jesus is to come to earth, embrace Islam and slay the Antichrist. The last trial of this day is to be the crossing of the bridge Sirat, finer than a hair and sharper than a sword. Still, the believer shall cross in safety while the wicked fall to the gulf below. Should any who have professed Islam, yet lived wicked lives, be consigned to hell, they are not to remain there forever; but will be gradually purified and released. To the Moslem, hell is for the followers of other religions. In paradise the Moslem is to enjoy all those things which to the mind of the desert Arab seemed most desirable. Here are gardens, trees ever green, rivers ever flowing, beautiful maidens, appetites that, so far from being satiated, increase as the delights are enjoyed. Here, too, he shall always see the face of (his) God and praise him, to whose mercy he owes his bliss; for his works alone are not enough to assure him entrance. Islam is not, however, a religion of faith only; for there are certain institutions, constituting Din, or religious practice, the performance of which is obligatory. Prayer, almsgiving, fasting and the pilgrimage are duties that tax the Moslem to no small degree. Prayers are to be made to God five times every day, and are to be made with the utmost decorum. Preparatory to these prayers there are certain ceremonies of purification, consisting of ablution, either partial or covering the entire body; for the idea of an unclean person in the presence of God is intolerable to the Moslem. To facilitate these ablutions, every mosque is provided with a tank, whence issue many small streams of water. Should the worshiper be praying where there is no water, he may use sand or dust. As he ends this ceremony he is to testify that "There is no god but Allah, and Mohammed is his envoy," following this by reciting sura 97. Should the worshiper be conscious that he is clean, he may omit the ceremony. He then assumes a certain position, facing Mecca, and states softly that he intends to perform so many inclinations, following this by reciting the first sura. After this other expressions of praise are used. Though prayer is fre quently mentioned in the Koran, the five periods at which it is enjoined are nowhere mentioned together. These periods are morning, noon, afternoon, sunset and night. The approach of these hours is heralded by the muezzin, who, ascending the minaret of the mosque, cries out: "Allah is most great (four times); I testify that there is no god but Allah (twice); I testify that Mohammed is the envoy of Allah (twice); come to prayer (twice); come to security (twice); Allah is most great (twice); there is no god but Allah." Prayers may be said wherever the believer happens to be at the time; but on Friday they should be said at the mosque, where a sermon is also delivered. Almsgiving is a very important duty in Islam. The Koran makes frequent mention of it, enjoining it in most emphatic terms. "O true believers, bestow alms of the good things which ye have gained, and of that which we have produced for you out of the earth, and choose not the bad thereof to give it in alms, such as ye would not accept yourself." (Sura 2, v. 269). "If ye make your alms to appear, it is well; but if ye conceal them and give them unto the poor, this will be better for you, and will atone for your sins." (Ibid. 272). How Mohammed considered alms may be seen from several passages of the Traditions, as quoted by Hughes: "Your smiling in your brother's face is alms; assisting the blind is alms." The Koran distinguishes between legal and voluntary alms; but this distinction has been done away with to a great extent. The necessity of giving, however, remains and alms are given regularly by those who neglect many of the other duties. In the early days of Islam legal alms were collected by officials appointed for that purpose; but their bestowal now is left to the individual conscience. Fasting was considered of great importance by Mohammed, as thereby atonement might be made, and at the present day many who neglect their daily prayers perform all the duties of the fast. The month of Ramadan was chosen for the great fast, because in it revelation came to Mohammed. Throughout this month, during the entire day, drinking, eating, smoking and many other indulgences are forbidden. When night comes, however, restrictions are removed till the next day. This fast is very severe when it falls in summer (the year being lunar, each month passes through all the seasons) and many exemptions are provided for those unable to undertake its arduous duties. Other fasts, meritorious, but not obligatory, are also in favor with Moslems. The object of these fasts is not altogether concerned with the mortification of the body; the heart is to fast; it must abstain from worldly matters and commune with God. Once at least in his lifetime the Moslem must make the pilgrimage to Mecca. "We appointed the holy house of Mecca to be a place of resort for mankind, and a place of security; and said, Take the station of Abraham for a place of prayer; and we covenanted with Abraham and Ismael, that they should cleanse my house for those who should compass it, and those who should bow down and worship there." (Sura 2, v. 119). "And it is a duty toward God, incumbent on those who are able to go thither, to visit this house." (Sura 3, v. 91). Some further regulations are found in sura 2, v. 194, and in sura 22. Trade may be indulged in while on the pilgrimage, and sura 5, v. 2, gives direction for women who contemplate the performance of this duty. When the pilgrim nears Mecca he bathes and puts on the Ihram, pilgrim's robe, and advances to the city. Here there are certain ablutions to be performed before kissing the Black Stone. He must then encircle the Caaba, the temple, seven times; kissing the Black Stone each time. After other prayers and ceremonies he must run between Mount Al-Safa and Mount Al-Marwa seven times, with stated prayers. Later he must visit the Valley of Mina and Mount Arafat where more prayers are performed. On the 10th day he proceeds to Mina and casts stones at three pillars which are set up there, seven stones at each. After this very ancient custom there is a sacrifice which ends the pilgrimage. The pilgrim may then be shaved and resume his usual clothing. He should, however, visit Medina and do homage at the tomb of Mohammed. Though not reckoned as one of the pillars of Islam, still the obligation to wage holy wars has been so firmly held that it deserves mention here. In early days every Moslem looked forward to a world-wide conquest and by means of these holy wars expected to bring all countries under the banners of Islam. To a conquered country the terms were: Embrace Islam, pay tribute or die. These were harsh terms, but much of their severity is accounted for by the early history of Islam. Broken oaths of allegiance and unprovoked attacks are responsible, to a large extent, for Mohammed's uncompromising attitude. The Koran does state itself clearly on this point, yet no precept found there, when "taken with its context, can justify unprovoked war." At the present day a far more liberal policy is preached toward unbelievers and the subject is much debated by the learned in Islam. Among the prohibitions of the Koran, the most important are those concerning wine and gambling. "They will ask thee concerning wine and lots; answer in both there is great sin and also some things of use unto men; but their sinfulness is greater than their use," and suras 2, v. 216; 5, v. 92, treat of the same. These verses are held by the Moslem to be an absolute prohibition. There might be, however, some doubt as to that if the verses alone and not their traditional interpretation were considered. Another prohibition of the Koran_is murder. When one believer kills another intentionally he is to remain in hell forever. (Sura 4, v. 96). From this fate, however, popular belief rescues him. Should the killing be by accident, there are certain expiations that may be made. There are also many prohibitions in regard to eating, the most important of which is that in regard to swine-flesh. (Sura 5, v. 4). Such flesh as is eaten must be from an animal killed in a prescribed manner. Laws of marriage, divorce, testaments and many other civil and criminal laws are founded on the Koran and the Traditions. Mohammed founded not only a religion but a social system as well, wherein the religious and the political life are inseparable. This is the unique feature of Islam. His Mohammed is said to have told his followers that after him 73 sects would arise. prophecy has been more than fulfilled. It is impossible to give more than a synopsis of a few of the more important divisions of Islam. The two great divisions of sectarian Islam are the Sunnites and the Shiites. Compared with the Sunnite, the Shiite is a small sect, numbering about 15,000,000, while the former has about 145,000,000 adherents. The Shiites believe Ali to have been the legitimate Caliph or Imam, that is, successor of Mohammed, and consequently reject Abu-Bekr, Omar and Othman. Ali, by his double relationship with the Prophet - he was cousin and son-in-law - as well as by reasons deduced from the Koran, and by traditions assigning him the appointment at the VOL. 19-20 - hands of Mohammed himself, should have been Imam. When Omar died, Ali was offered the succession, but as he could not satisfy his opponents that he would rule in accord with their wish he did not receive it till the death of Othman. Ali, however, was soon murdered and his son Hasan abdicated in favor of Muawiyah on condition that he might resume his office at Muawiyah's death. Yazid, however, cheated Hasan of his rights and here starts the Shiite schism. They profess allegiance to a line of 12 Imams, beginning with Ali and ending with Al Mahdi, who disappeared, but is to return. In the meantime they receive religious and legal decisions from a class of learned men, called Mudgtahids, a class of authorities not recognized by the Sunnites except in the case of the founders of the four orthodox Sunnite schools. There are numerous subdivisions of the Shiites, but on certain points they agree. The Shiites also observe the ceremonies of Moharram in commemoration of Hasan and Hosein, who were sons of Ali and were both murdered. Their memories are sacred to the Shiites. They differ from the Sunnites in that they credit the fire worshipers with the possession of an inspired book or revelation. In the ritual and civil laws also many differences are found. They have a large collection of traditions, a fact often ignored by scholars, misled by the Sunnites' claim to be the Traditionists par excellence. The Sunnites acknowledge the first four caliphs to have been the rightful successors of Mohammed. They are divided into four orthodox sects or legal schools, the first of which was founded by Abu Hanifa. This Abu Hanifa was a pupil of the sixth Imam of the Shiites; but separated from him to form the school of his name that now predominates in Turkey, central Asia and northern India. The second of these schools, that of Ash Shafia, prevails in southern India and Egypt. The third school, that of Malik, has its home in Morocco and Barbary. The last school, that of Ahmed ibnHanbal, is found in East Arabia and portions of Africa. The term Sunni, which they apply to themselves, is an arrogant title. It signifies "one who is on the path." They claim that they receive the six authentic books of tradition. From the school of Ahmed ibn-Hanbal sprang the sect of the Wahhabites, who are named after their founder's father, the founder himself being named Mohammed. This Mohammed, born in Arabia, in the early part of the 18th century, having seen, in the course of his travels, that Islam had departed from its primitive faith, determined to restore to the religion of Mohammed its early purity. His zeal as a reformer received some temporary setback and he soon became the warrior-prophet. Many converts were made by his missionaries, and the movement grew till Turkey feared for her own safety. In 1803 Mecca, and a year later Medina, was captured. The political power of the Wahhabites was soon destroyed, however, though the principles are still a force in Islam. In India, too, the movement met with a similar fate. The tenets of the Wahhabites are, practically, those held by the early Moslem. They arrogated to themselves the name of Unitarians, stigmatizing other Moslems as polytheists, inasmuch as the doctrine of the eternity of the |