devolve upon the counsel for a defendant before civil courts in criminal cases.

General courts-martial have power to try any person subject to military law, for any crime or offense made punishable by the Articles of War. In addition they have power to try any person other than above, who by the law is subject to trial by military tribunals, for any crime or offense in violation of the law of war. Punishment upon conviction is discretionary with a general court-martial, except when mandatory under the law, or when limited by order of the President under the Articles of War; in addition, the death penalty can be imposed only when specifically authorized. The death penalty is mandatory in the case of spies; dismissal is mandatory for conduct unbecoming an officer and gentleman; either death or imprisonment for life is mandatory for murder and rape; punishment is mandatory in part and discretionary in part for false muster, false returns, officer drunk on duty in time of war and personal interest in the sale of provisions. The usual punishments imposed upon soldiers are the following, beginning with the least severe : Detention of pay, forfeiture of pay, reduction, hard labor without confinement, confinement at hard labor and dishonorable discharge. In the absence of evidence of two or more previous convictions, a minor offense, the nature of which appears to demand punishment by hard labor, should ordinarily be punished by hard labor without confinement, rather than by confinement at hard labor. For offenses properly punishable by detention of pay, forfeiture of pay, reduction or hard labor without confinement, those forms of punishment should, as a rule, be resorted to before confinement at hard labor is imposed. Many punishments formerly sanctioned have now, under a more enlightened spirit of penology, become so obsolete as to be effectually prohibited by custom without the necessity of regulations. Punishment by flogging, or by branding, marking or tattooing on the body is prohibited under the Articles of War; and no person can, by general court-martial be convicted of an offense for which the death penalty is made mandatory by law, nor sentenced to suffer death, except by the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of said court-martial and for an offense in the Articles of War expressly made punishable by death. No sentence of a court-martial can be carried into execution until the same shall have been approved by the officer appointing the court or by the officer commanding for the time being, Any sentence of death requires confirmation by the President before the sentence of a court-martial can be carried into execution, except in the cases of persons convicted in time of war of murder, rape, mutiny, desertion or as spies, and in such excepted cases a sentence of death may be carried into execution upon confirmation of the commanding general of the army in the field or by the commanding general of the territorial department or division.

An officer charged with crime or with a serious offense under the Articles of War is placed in arrest by the commanding officer, and in exceptional cases an officer so charged may be placed in confinement by the same authority. A soldier charged with crime or with a serious offense under the Articles of War is placed in

confinement, and when charged with a minor offense he may be placed in arrest. Any other person subject to military law charged with crime or with a serious offense under the Articles of War is placed in confinement or in arrest, as circumstances may require; and when charged with a minor offense such person may be placed in arrest. Any person placed in arrest is restricted to his barracks, quarters or tent, unless such limits are enlarged by proper authority. An officer is placed in arrest by his commanding officer in person or through another officer, by a verbal or written order or communication, advising him that he is placed in arrest, or will consider himself in arrest, or words to that effect. An officer in arrest cannot exercise command of any kind. He cannot wear a sword nor visit officially his commanding or superior officer, unless directed to do so. His applications and requests of every nature are made in writing. Officers are not placed in arrest for light offenses. For these the censure of the commanding officer generally answers the purpose of discipline. In ordinary cases where inconvenience to the service would result from it, a medical officer is not placed in arrest until the court-martial for his trial convenes. Except as provided in the Articles of War, or when restraint is necessary, no soldier is confined without the order of an officer, who previously inquires into his offense; it is proper, however, for a company commander to delegate to commissioned officers of his company the power to place enlisted men in arrest as a means of restraint at the instant when restraint is necessary, but such action must at once be reported to the company commander. Non-commissioned officers are not confined in company with privates if it can be avoided. When placed in arrest, they are not required to perform any duty in which they may be called upon to exercise authority or control over others, and when placed in confinement, they are not sent out to work. When the sentence of a general court-martial prescribes dishonorable discharge and confinement, so much of the sentence as relates to confinement is expressed in substantially the following form: To be confined at hard labor at such place as the reviewing authority may direct for (leaving to the reviewing authority the designation of the place of confinement). A military post, station or camp is designated as the place of confinement of any general prisoner whose confinement is directed to be in a penitentiary or disciplinary barracks. The arrest of an officer has been compared to an enlargement on bail, the security being the officer's commission. It is for this reason that the punishment for breach of arrest may include dismissal. The distinction between arrest and confinement lies in the difference between the kind of restraint imposed. In arrest the restraint is moral, imposed by the orders fixing the limit of the arrest, or by the terms of the Article of War. The intention or motive that actuates a breach of arrest is immaterial to the question of guilt, though, of course, proof of inadvertence or bona-fide mistake is admissible in guiding the court in fixing punishment.

The present system of courts-martial leads to injustice logically, naturally and inevitably, and needs corrective modification. It is an inheritance from the old British code, which was

adopted in 1774 and never changed. Instead of being a court in the proper sense, it is simply the executive arm of a commanding officer. When the accused is arrested and brought before this tribunal he generally has no counsel skilled in the law and (when convicted) is convicted by a court which has no knowledge of law. The sentence is reviewed by an authority sometimes equally ignorant of law and the man is forced to undergo the sentence imposed. An illustrative case, from the records of trials by courts-martial, is that of a man who was arrested and charged with desertion. He was sentenced to forfeit all pay, be dishonorably discharged and serve ninety-nine (99) years at hard labor. The reviewing authority in sustaining the court naïvely remarked that it would not enforce the part of the judgment providing for the man's dishonorable discharge until he had served his prison sentence.

EDWARD S. FARROW,

Consulting Military and Civil Engineer. MILITARY EDUCATION. The foundation of all military education is the school, ranging from the school of the soldier_or grenadier to the school of the battalion. Recent wars have demonstrated that it is necessary to organize schools for specialists and schools for command where officers and men of all grades can be instructed in the essential principles of modern war and in the proper employment of different military means and engines. By these schools the complete harmony between the different arms and between the commander and his troops can be secured. The organization of all military instruction must provide for instruction in the essential principles of war and the combination in combat of the different arms employed, and the condition of permanence and of continuity is necessary in all such instruction if the best possible results are to be obtained. As practised in the schools of Europe (patterned largely after the United States Military Academy) the instruction of troops gives them indispensable intellectual training and information on the procedure in battle and assists the officers in obtaining from them their best efforts. The instruction of specialists employs such methods as give the men full confidence in their army and weapon, a confidence based upon results obtained by employing it under the conditions of battle. The schools which correspond most nearly to the United States Military Academy are the Military Schools of Italy, the Ecole Militaire de Belgique, or Military Academy at Ixelles, the Theresa Military Academy of Wiener-Neustadt, the Technical Military Academy of Vienna, the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris, the Ecole Speciale Militaire at Saint Cyr and the Upper Cadet School of Gros-Lichterfelde.

The military schools of Italy are divided into three classes, viz.: (1) The Collegi Militari, or military preparatory schools of which there are five, established at Naples, Florence, Milan, Rome and Messina. (2) The military schools for the training of officers and noncommissioned officers, known as the Military School of Modena, the Military Academy of Tunis, the Military Sanitary School of Application in Florence and the Non-Commissioned Officers' School in Caserta. (3) The military

schools of application proper, for officers, known as the War School (Scuola di Guerra), in Turin; the School of Application of Artillery and the Engineers, in Turin; and the School of Cavalry, in Pinerola. There are, in addition to the foregoing, schools for artillery and musketry practice, a school of fencing, and batteries and platoons of instruction for training non-commissioned officers.

The Ecole Militaire, or Military Academy, at Ixelles, supplies officers to the infantry, cavalry, artillery and engineers. The length of the course of instruction is two years for the infantry and cavalry section, and four years for the artillery and engineer section. All students, on commencing the second year's course, contract to serve for eight years, and there are no admissions to the school except by competition. The Minister of War decides upon the persons who are to be admitted to the military academy, in accordance with the results of the competitions.

The Theresa Military Academy of WienerNeustadt educates officers for the infantry, rifles and cavalry; the Technical Military Academy of Vienna educates officers for the artillery, engineers and technical troops (including the railway and telegraph troops). The different kinds of places at these military academies are Ararial (imperial or treasury) places, wholly or half free; Stiftungs (foundation or endowment) places; and paying places. These different kinds of places are at the disposal of the Imperial War Ministry or the ministries of national defense of Austria and Hungary. The places for which there are endowment of private funds are disposed of in accordance with the stipulations of the letter of donation. The Ararial places were formerly given directly by the emperor. In awarding these places preference is given to the sons of officers, and then to the sons of officials. The Stiftungs places are disposed of by competitive examination, the persons who are allowed to compete being designated by the state, country or other authorities.

The Royal Military Academy is maintained for the purpose of affording a special military education to candidates for commissions in the royal artillery and royal engineers. Candidates must, in the opinion of the commander-in-chief (who is the president of the Royal Military Academy), be in all respects suitable to hold commissions in the army. An independent inspection is made annually by a board of visitors, appointed by the Secretary of State for War, and reporting to him. Such visitors are not a permanent body, but are not all changed at the same time. The report of this board is presented to Parliament. The academy is under the control of a military officer, styled governor and commandant, appointed by and responsible to the Secretary of State for War, through the commander-in-chief. The governor is assisted by a staff officer styled the assistant commandant and secretary, who is responsible in his temporary absence for the charge of the establishment. This officer commands the cadet company, and has the custody of the records and correspondence of the academy and gives the governor such assistance as he may require. The governor is assisted in the arrangement of the studies by a board composed of the assistant commandant and the

professors or senior instructors of the different branches. The head of each branch has the supervision and inspection of the studies in his department and reports on them to the governor. Admission to the Royal Military Academy as cadets is granted to the successful candidates at an open competitive examination.

The Royal Military College at Sandhurst is maintained for the purpose of affording a special military education to candidates for commissions in the infantry and cavalry. Candidates must, in the opinion of the commanderin-chief, be in all respects suitable to hold commissions in the army. The commander-inchief is president of the Royal Military College, and, as at the Royal Military Academy, there is an annual independent inspection and a governor and commandant in control, assisted by an assistant commandant and secretary, who commands the cadet battalion and has the custody of the records and correspondence of the college. Admission to the Royal Military College is granted to successful candidates at a competitive examination and to Indian Cadets, pages of honor and others subject to a qualifying examination. The characteristic features of the Woolwich and Sandhurst schools are the brief period of instruction and the somewhat exacting competitive standards for admission. The two occupy to a considerable extent the relation of cause and effect, with some diversity of judgment expressed as to their expediency.

The Polytechnic School, or L'École Polytechnique, at Paris, was founded in 1794 and has been reorganized by various decrees. The object of the school is to train students for the following branches of the public service: The artillery of the army and the marine artillery; the engineer corps of the army; the engine r corps of the navy or naval constructors; the corps of naval officers; the hydrographic corps; the marine commissariat corps; the corps of highways and bridges; the manufactories of the state; the engineers of the powder and saltpetre service; the mining engineers and the telegraphic lines; also for such other public services as require a profound knowledge of the mathematical, physical and chemical sciences. Admittance to the school is exclusively by competitive examination. After a two years' course the student may go to one of the special schools of application for any of the above mentioned services, provided he can pass successfully the final examinations and

de

clared to be acceptable for this service by the decision of a committee which draws up the classification list for the public services. Fulfilment of these conditions does not give an absolute right to enter any of the public services; admission to any service depends upon the number of vacancies existing at the time of leaving the school, upon the physical aptitude of the student and his place on the order of merit. The school is directly subject to the Minister of War.

The Special Military School of Saint Cyr, or Saint Cyr, as it is popularly designated, dates from the time of Louis XIV, and is intended to supply officers for the infantry, the cavalry and the marine infantry. The course of instruction lasts two years, and no scholar is allowed to remain more than three years at the school. The privilege of taking a third

year to complete the course is only allowed where circumstances of exceptional gravity have compelled a student to suspend work at the school. Admittance to the school is exclusively by competitive examination and competitors are limited to those who have obtained certain degrees, or a certificate of qualification for the baccalaureate degree in secondary or classical modern schools. In France the system adopted in the armies at the front is that of centralizing the instruction in each army. This instruction embraces: (1) Schools of the line. (a) course for captains which prepares for the command of the battalion, (b) special course for commanders of division depots, (c) course for company commanders, (d) course for noncommissioned officers, (e) practical course in engineering; (2) schools of specialists (a) school for grenadiers, (b) machine-gun schools, (c) automatic rifle school, (d) school for the 37 mm. gun, and (e) school of liaison and signalling. These schools are generally in a zone about two or three days' march from the front. In addition to these schools, practical instruction is given in the division depots to recruits who have just joined combat organizations. Behind the front are instruction battalions formed from recruits of the youngest classes, and in the interior of the country are vast camps where schools of specialists carry on their training.

This

In Germany, the school which corresponds most nearly to the United States Military Academy is the Upper Cadet School, at GrossLichterfelde (Haupt-Katetten-Austalt). school is fed or supplied by the "Kadettenhausen," or preparatory cadet schools. Saxony and Bavaria have their own cadet corps corresponding to the preparatory and upper cadet schools of Prussia, from which appointments are made to the Saxon army corps and to the corps of the Bavarian army. Saxony, however, has no artillery and engineer school, and officers of those arms have to pass through the Prussian School at Berlin. Bavaria has its own artillery and engineer school at Munich.

The military educational system of the United States comprises:

1. The Military Academy at West Point for the education of cadets.

2. Post schools for the instruction of enlisted men.

3. At each military post a garrison school for the instruction of officers in subjects pertaining to the performance of their ordinary duties.

4. Service schools. See ARMY SERVICE SCHOOLS.

5. The military department of civil institutions at which officers of the army are detailed under the provisions of law. The detail of these officers at these institutions is announced and the regulations governing the courses of instruction therein are issued from the War Department.

War Department orders prescribing regulations to govern post and garrison schools lay down specifically the course to be followed in the more elementary schools for officers and enlisted men. Brigade commanders devote special attention to the post-graduate scheme of instruction, which runs through the entire period of garrison training. The post-graduate includes such map

course of instruction

problems, terrain exercises, tactical or staff walks or rides, or other work pertaining to the local terrain as brigade commanders may prescribe; this portion of the course may be made to amplify the work of the elementary schools for officers and enlisted men, as well as the drill and practical instruction preparatory to field training.

See NAVAL EDUCATION and UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY.

EDWARD S. FARROW,

Consulting Military and Civil Engineer. MILITARY ENGINEERING. Military engineering is officially stated to be that branch of engineering science applied by engineer troops in the field to the emergencies of modern warfare in order to protect and assist troops, to ameliorate the conditions under which they are serving, to facilitate locomotion and communication and whenever the occasion requires to act as purely combatant troops. In the performance of these duties engineers are trained and equipped to supplement or amplify by scientific measures the efforts of combatant troops in the services mentioned below and such other special services of an engineering nature as may arise and are beyond the technical training of combatant troops, or such as require the use of engineering implements and material not supplied to combatant troops. The following services are executed under the supervision of engineer officers by engineer troops, by details from other troops, by civilian labor or by any combination of these means as the particular circumstances may require:

1. The service of reconnaissance, including tactical reconnaissance, engineering reconnaissance, surveying, mapping and sketching, panoramic sketching, photography, drafting and map reproduction.

2. The service of castramentation, including the selection, laying out and preparation of camps, the reconnaissance and municipal and sanitary engineering incident thereto, and the installation, operation and maintenance of water-supply systems.

3. The service of fortifications, pertaining both to the attack and the defense and including the selection of defensive positions when not in the presence of the enemy; rectification of and assistance in the selection of such positions in the presence of the enemy; the location, design and construction of the more important field works; assistance in and supervision of the construction of hasty defenses wherever possible; the supply of tools and materials, and the reconnaissance, demolitions, water supply and communications incident thereto.

4. The service of sieges, pertaining both to the attack and defense and including the selection and location of defensive lines, lines of investment and siege works, the construction of saps, mines and counter-mines; the operation of searchlights; preparation for and assistance in attacks, counter-attacks and sorties; organization of captured points, and the supply of tools and materials.

5. The service of demolitions, including the carrying out of all work of this nature authorized by the commander and not within the scope of other troops.

6. The service of battlefield illumination, including the supply and operation of search

lights and other means of battlefield illumination.

7. The service of general construction, including the location, design and construction of wharves, piers, landings, storehouses, hospitals and other structures of general utility in the theatre of operation.

8. The service of communications, including the construction, maintenance and repair of roads, ferries, bridges and incidental structures; the selection and preparation of forts; the construction, maintenance and operation of railways under military control and the construction and operation of armored trains.

9. Special services, including all municipal, sanitary and other public work of an engineering nature which may be required in territory under military control.

Fire Action.- To comprehend the subject of fortifications it is imperatively necessary to know and understand the effect of fire both from small arms and artillery, destructive forces quite different in action from those against which the engineer must ordinarily protect his works. To shoot straight, to direct a projectile true to its target, is a feat of engineering just as much as the accurate adjustment and pointing of a theodolite in a geodetic survey. Rifle fire which dominates a certain space and prevents the enemy from occupying it is just as effective as that which strikes his men, and the greater the space which can thus be occupied by fire action per unit volume of fire the more efficient is that fire. Artillery fire has of late become a most important factor in modern tactics with its great increase and accuracy and bids fair almost to revolutionize battle tactics and the art of fortification. By the application of indirect fire and spotting a battery can take up a position of safety and systematically search out the landscape.

Fortifications.- Fortifications may be defined as any engineering devices for increasing the fighting power of troops in the field. Entrenchments, screens or blinds, obstacles, communicating trenches, mines and demolitions, all come under the designation of fortifications. Of these the most important are those which afford protection from the enemy's fire and incidentally provide concealment and means of intercommunication. The term fortification, as commonly employed, refers to works of this character only. Field works are usually considered as to (1) location, or siting; (2) trace, or ground plan; (3) construction; (4) concealment. Engineers generally make three distinct classes of field or temporary fortifications: (1) all works devised for the temporary protection of important points, such as cities, arsenals, bridges, fords, positions, etc., technically known as field works; (2) the various devices of the engineer for reducing a fortified place by means of parallels and approaches, known as siege works; (3) quickly made defenses by which an army in the presence of an enemy protects itself, known as battle entrenchments or hasty entrenchments.

The general line to be held or defended depends upon strategical considerations and the location of trenches is affected by the general line to be occupied, tactical considerations and features of the terrain. Tactical considerations, such as actual or potential interference by the enemy with the construction, may affect

the location. All works for the defense of a position should provide concealment, a clear field of frontal fire, good communications to the rear, the flanks resting upon some natural obstacle or in contact with adjacent troops. A clear field of fire to the front was formerly considered all important and necessary to be secured at the expense of all other considerations; but, with the greatly increased effectiveness of modern artillery, it has been accepted as a maxim that, that which is seen is as good as destroyed, and concealment of the works becomes of first importance.

Organization of a Position.- The organization of a position does not imply the estabGround rising in respect of line of sight.

Level Ground

Rising Ground

Riging Ground

Rising Grouna

Ground falling in respect of line of sight.

Level Ground

The Beaten zone is greatest on slope A-D,

the Trajectory being practically parallel to the surface of the ground.

The relation of ground to fire effect.

first, then their cover, approach and communicating trenches. The next step is the construction of the strong points for the support trenches, with the necessary communicating and approach trenches. Finally the defensive zone is completed by the construction of the reserve and intermediate trenches organized into strong points, and all of these into supporting points and sectors.

Obstacles. The object of an obstacle is to check a hostile rush and delay the enemy under the close fire of the defense, and it should be at such distance from the parapet that it is difficult for hostile bombers to crawl up to it and throw bombs into the trench. On the other hand, the obstacle should be under close observation and fire of the defense. If possible it should be concealed for purposes of surprise and to decrease its liability to injury by artillery fire; it should form no shelter for the enemy. Some form of wire entanglement is ordinarily used. Obstacles are usually placed all around strong and supporting points and often on both sides of approach trenches. Passages through them for counter attacks are usually covered by machine gun fire. At important points the wire entanglement is placed in belts 20 feet wide, two or more belts about 20 yards apart being used. The modern form is a compromise between the high and the low wire entanglement and is generally from two to two and one-half feet high. The wire is strung loosely, and many forms of spirals and hoops have been devised. Barbed wire is ordinarily used; the posts are of wood or iron; the iron ones are provided with eyelets for attaching the wire. There are usually three rows of posts set in quincunx order from six to eight feet apart.

lishment of a continuous firing trench. The terrain in front of a position is best covered by a combination of frontal and flank fire from distinct elements, such as trenches, blockhouses, etc., separated by small intervals; thus economizing the personnel which is one of the advantages of fortification, and minimizing the effect of the enemy's artillery fire. Each of these elements is occupied by a fixed garrison, which should always be a complete unit, the strength of which, variable according to circumstances, may be as much as a platoon. These elements are not uniformly distributed along the front; their distribution is determined by the features of the terrain, the necessity of having a greater volume of fire at one point than at another, in one direction than another, and other tactical considerations. A line can always be forced at some points so that it is necessary to have elements in rear which come into action when the first have fallen. It is, therefore, necessary to disperse the elements laterally and in depth. A group of elements, thus disposed, is known as a strong point, and by their mutual support should permit the garrison to hold and stop the enemy by its fire. It should be surrounded by a continuous obstacle and should always be occupied by a fixed unit responsible for its defense. Strong points are grouped together laterally and in depth to form supporting points and the combination of several supporting points under one commander forms a sector. This organization is a gradual development made during a prolonged occupation of a position in trench warfare such as developed on the western front in Europe. In the initial occupation of a position the first step is the construction of the strong points for the firing line, with their firing trenches and obstacles

Concealment and Observations.-The trenches and other works should be made as nearly invisible as possible, and their concealment should be completed by treating the front slope of the parapet so that its appearance from the front and from aircraft will correspond to that of the surrounding ground. Night Sentinel