20 m. NNE of Mascara, situated, as its name denotes, on a mountain, and surrounded by ramifications of the Atlas chain. It is ill-built, and extremely dirty; but formerly possessed extensive manufactories of carpets and other woollen fabrics, and was surrounded by villages in which the same manufactures were carried on. It contains numerous ruins, supposed to be those of the ancient Gillin, the Apphar of Ptolemy, and in the vicinity are the remains of the ancient Tagadempt.-Also a town on the S side of Jurjura range, 80 m. SE of Algiers. CALLAHPOEWAHS, an aboriginal tribe of N America, loeated in Oregon, between the Rocky mountains and the Pacific, in N lat. 43°. CALLALEY AND YETLINGTON, a township of Whittingham parish, Northumberland. Pop. in 1841, 306. CALLAM PULO, a rocky islet in the strait of Malacca, near the Malay coast, in N lat. 3o, E long. 101° 20'. CALLAN, a river of co. Armagh, rising, in two head-streams, on the boundary with co. Monaghan. These unite 24 m. SW of Armagh-Breague; and the united stream flows 10 m. N, and 3 m. NW to the Blackwater at Charlemont.-Also a p. and town in co. Kilkenny. Area of p. 5,634 acres. Pop. 6,128. The town stands on King's river, 8 m. SW of Kilkenny. Pop. 3,111. CALLANDER, a parish in Perthshire, stretching along the Teith, and along the Grampian range. Pop. in 1801, 2,282; in 1841, 1,665.-The v. of C. is 164 m. NW of Stirling. Pop. in 1841, 1,107. It is a place of mere local trade; but is much visited by tourists on account of its vicinity to the Trosachs. CALLANSOESOE, or CALLA-SUSUNG, a town of the island of Butang, in the Asiatic archipelago, on the NE side of Dwall bay. It has a harbour, but it is rocky and unsafe. CALANTSOOG, a town of Holland, in the prov. of N Holland, on the coast of the North sea, 16 m. NNW of Alkmaar. CALLAO, or COLLAC, a town of Peru, in the district of Junin, on an affluent of the Perene, 42 m. NE of Janja. CALLAO, or SAN-FELIPE-DEL-CALLAO, a town and port of Peru, in the prov. and 6 m. W of Lima, of which it is the port, near the entrance of the Rimac into the Pacific ocean, in S lat. 12° 3′ 45′′, and W long. 77° 10. Variation in 1814, 8° 30′ E. It is defended by several forts or castles; and the port-which is the best in Peru-is sheltered on the S and SW by a peninsula, and the islands of San Lorenzo and Callao, and affords excellent anchorage for vessels of the largest size. There are no rocks in the bay, which is from 14 to 16 leagues in circuit, and the water is very deep, with clear ground and gradual soundings from 20 fath. to 3 fath. at the mole head. As the winds which prevail here during the winter always blow between the SE and the S, but most generally from the S, the bay of C. is always tranquil, being defended from the S winds by a long neck of land which projects into the sea, and by the large island of San Lorenzo, opposite to this cape on the W, and the small islands of El Fronton and El Corcobado. The road is open to N and NW winds, but these are of rare occurrence, and only blow moderately. The river of Rimac-corrupted into Lima,-which discharges itself into the sea under the walls of C., furnishes abundance of good water; and the loading and unloading of vessels is facilitated by a mole furnished with cranes. The governor's house, and former palace of the viceroy, are situated near the shore, which is firm and lined with shingle. A suburb named Poiti pisti is inhabited by Indians. The existing town, or rather village of C., consisted of little more than 200 houses or huts in 1820. In 1836 the pop. was estimated at 4,000. In winter C. is damp and dirty; and in summer so dusty, that in passing through the streets one is almost choked. Most of the houses are slightly built, and usually only one story high, with a basement. The walls are constructed of reeds, plastered over with loam or red clay. All the roofs are flat, being made of straw mats laid on a framework of reeds, which is also plastered with loam on the under side. The windows are in the roof, and consist of wooden trapdoors, which look very much like bird-cages. They have no glass panes, but gratings made of wooden spars. On the inside there is a window-shutter, and a string hangs down into the apartment, by means of which the shutter can be opened or closed. The most interesting object in C. is its splendid fortress. Though built on a low plain close to the sea, it has a magnificent appearance. It consists of two castles, the largest of which, built at the extreme point of a tongue of land to the W of the town, the Spaniards named Reale Filippe, but since the Revolution it has been called Castillo de la Independencia. It has two large, round, but not very high towers; and the courtyards are spacious. The walls are thick, rather low, and surrounded by a ditch, which can be filled with water from the sea. To the S of this castle there is a smaller one, called El Castillo del Sol. Before the war of independence these forts mounted both together 400 pieces of cannon, many of which were of large calibre. At present they have only 60 pieces of cannon and 71 carronades. The whole have bomb-proof casements and a covered way.-On the fortress of C. the Spanish flag waved long after independence was declared in all the countries of Spanish South America. The Spanish general, Bodil, threw himself into the castle, and with wonderful resolution held out against Sucre, in a siege of a year and a half. In January 1826 he submitted to a capitulation, by which Spain abandoned its last footing on Peruvian soil. During the last three months the Spaniards suffered all the privations and miseries which a besieged army must endure within the tropics. [Tschudi.] The original town, which was strongly fortified under Philip IV., was entirely destroyed and submerged by an earthquake in 1746, and its ruins are still to be seen at low tides, under water. On the 20th of Oct., 1687, at the second concussion of an earthquake, the sea retired within its usual limits, and returning in mountainous waves, overwhelmed C. and the adjacent country. During the earthquake of 1746, this town suffered still greater devastations. The port of C. and several of the buildings at once sunk into the ground. But this evil was nothing, compared to the dreadful catastrophe which succeeded it. "The sea," says Ulloa, "receding to a considerable distance from the shore, returned in mountainous waves, foaming with the violence of the agitation, and suddenly turned C. and the neighbouring country into a sea. This was not, however, totally performed by the first swell of the waves, for the sea retiring further, returned with still more impetuosity, the stupendous water covering both the walls and other buildings of the place, so that whatever had escaped the first, was now totally overwhelmed by these terrible mountains of waves, and nothing remained except a piece of the wall of the port of Santa Cruz, as a memorial of this terrible devastation. There were then 23 ships and vessels, great and small, in the harbour, of which 19 were absolutely sunk, and the other four, amongst which was a frigate, called San Fermin, carried by the force of the waves to a great distance [14 m.] up the country. This terrible inundation extended to other parts on the coast, as Cavallos and Guanape. At C., where the number of inhabitants amounted to about 4,800, 200 only escaped; and 22 of these by means of the above-mentioned fragment of a wall." In Nov. 1820, the roadstead of C. was the scene of a naval combat between the Spaniards and the independent forces of Chili, in which the latter had the advantage. 66 | Tschudi adds, "of the general correctness of those statements: for a careful investigation of facts leads to the same conclusion; so that within the last 60 or 70 years the sinking must have been considerable. It must be observed, however, that the ruins on the small tongue of land are not, as Darwin supposes, the remains of the city of C. swallowed up by the sea in 1746, but of the C. which was destroyed by the great earthquake in 1630. Another proof of this sinking exists in the extensive shallow between the coast of the mainland and San Lorenzo, called the Camotal. In early times this shallow was dry land, producing vegetables, in particular camotes (sweet potatoes), whence the name of this portion of the strait is derived. The inundation took place in the time of the Spaniards, but before 1746, either in the great earthquake of 1687, or in that of 1630." Humboldt ascertained that the water of the bay of C. is 2o colder than that off any other point of this coast; and the worms and marine insects, so destructive elsewhere, do little injury to vessels here. The range of the therm. in the bay of C. during 75 days, from Dec. 15, 1832, was 70°; that of the barom. 29.85. Between July 8 and Aug. 22, 1833, the therm. ranged 69°; and the barom. 29.77.-The English mails at present [1849] reach C. in 47 or 48 days by steampacket from Southampton; but arrangements now progress will, it is expected, reduce this to 30 or 31 days. The coasts of C. and San Lorenzo have undergone very remarkable changes within a few centuries. Mr. Darwin, the English geologist, is of opinion that this part of Peru has risen 85 ft. since it had human inhabitants. On the NE declivity of San Lorenzo, which is divided into three indistinctly marked terraces, there are numbers of shells, of the same species of conchylia which are at the present time found living on the coast. On an accurate examination of these shells, Mr. Darwin found many of them deeply corroded. "They have," he says, a much older and more decayed appearance than those at the height of 500 or 600 ft. on the coast of Chili. These shells are associated with much common salt, a little sulphate of soda, and muriate of lime. The rest are fragments of the under-lying sandstone, and are covered by a few inches thick of detritus. The shells higher up on this terrace could be traced scaling off in flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on an upper terrace, at the height of 170 ft., and likewise at some considerably higher points, I found a layer of saline powder, of exactly similar appear-in ance, and lying in the same relative position. I have no doubt that the upper layer originally existed on CALLAO, or CALLAO-RAI, a small island in the a bed of shells, like that on the 85 ft. ledge, but it Chinese sea, about 15 m. from the coast of Cochindoes not now contain even a trace of organic struc- China, in N lat. 15° 15'. It is nearly 5 m. long, ture." Mr. Darwin adds, that on the terrace, which and 2 m. broad. Its E shore is rendered inacis 85 ft. above the sea, he found imbedded amongst cessible by a continued range of overhanging cliffs the shells and sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cot- and immense rocks, which in some places rise perton thread, plaited rushes, and the head of a stalk of pendicularly out of the sea; while the opposite side Indian corn. Tschudi, commenting on these obser- of the island is covered with verdure, and indented vations, says, "San Lorenzo does not appear to have with several small sandy bays, affording safe and been inhabited in very early ages. The fragments of convenient stations for landing. These, however, human industry which have been found mixed in the are separated from each other by steep and rugged shells, have probably been brought thither by fisher- ridges, which render all communication between men who visit the island, and often pass the night on them by land extremely difficult. At the bottom it." Darwin further remarks:-"It has been stated of one of the largest of these bays is a fertile valthat the land subsided during this memorable shockley, containing about 200 acres, where the ground (in 1746). I could not discover any proof of this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of the coast must certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of the old town," &c.—"On the island of San Lorenzo there are very satisfactory proofs of elevation, within a recent period; this, of course, is not opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground having subsequently taken place." On this Tschudi remarks, that "satisfactory evidence of the sinking of the coast is not to be obtained in a visit of a few weeks' duration; nor can that evidence rest solely on geological facts, though doubtless they may furnish much important data. History must aid the inquiry. Tradition and the recollection of old persons must be attended to. According to these authorities, a change more or less considerable has taken place in the level of the coast, after every great earthquake. If we refer to the account given by Ulloa, and compare the plan of the harbour of C., drawn by him in 1742, with the most correct modern charts, we do not find much difference in the representations of the distance between the mainland and CALLAWAY, a county in the state of Kentucky, San Lorenzo. Four years afterwards, the great U. S., comprising an area of 600 sq. m., bounded on earthquake occurred, which destroyed the city of C., the E by the Tennessee river, and intersected by and plunged it into the sea. Subsequently there was Clarke's river. Pop. in 1840, 9,794, of whom 8,870 a rising of the coast, which could not be inconsider- were whites, 911 slaves, and 13 free coloured. The cap. able, for according to the statements of old inhabi-is Wadesboro.-Also a county in the state of Missouri, tants of C., the distance from the coast to San Lorenzo was at one time so inconsiderable that boys used to throw stones over to the island; while at present the distance is nearly 2 m. I have no doubt," rises gently towards the E, and is bounded on CALLAO. See CHAM-CALLAO. A CALLAQUI, a volcanic summit of the Andes, on the confines of Chili and La Plata, in S lat. 38° 5'. CALLAS, a canton, commune, and town of France, in the dep. of Var, arrond. of Draguignan. The cant. comprises 7 com., and in 1831 contained a pop. of 8,742. The town is 6 m. NE of Draguignan. Pop. 2,268. It possesses oil and corn-mills, and coal is wrought in the environs. CALLAUGHTON, a township in the p. of Much Wenlock, Salop. Pop. in 1841, 149. containing a superficies of 760 sq. m., bounded on the S by the Missouri river, and drained by Big and Little Au Vase creeks. It presents an undulating surface, and is very fertile. Pop. in 1830, 6,159; in Birdstail Fort. CALLINGER. See KALLINGER. CALLINGTON, formerly KELLINGTON, a parish and town in Cornwall, 12 m. S of Launceston. The town stands on a gentle acclivity, and consists chiefly of one broad irregularly built street. Area of p. 2,600 acres. Pop. in 1841, 1,685.-Two miles to the N is Kit or St. Kit's-hill, a huge mass of granite which rises 1,067 ft. above sea-level. CALLITZA, a town of Turkey in Europe, in Macedonia, in the sanjak and 60 m. ESE of Salonika, on the SE side of the Gulf of Istillar. It occupies the site of the ancient Urunopolis. CALLIUCAS, a river of Peru, which takes its rise in the E branch of the Andes, and unites with the Pisqui or Pachitea, 40 m. S of the junction of that river with the Paro.-Also an aboriginal tribe of S America, who inhabit the district of Peru, between the E branch of the Andes and the Pachitea. 1840, 11,765, of whom 8,601 were whites, 3,142 | which unites with the Assiniboine a little above slaves, and 22 free-coloured. The cap. is Fulton. CALLE (LA), CALA, or AL KALAH, a circle and town of Algeria, in the prov. of Constantine. The town is 115 m. ENE of Constantine, and 35 m. E of Bonah, on the Mediterranean. It is situated on a sterile rock, surrounded on three sides by the sea, and defended on the fourth by a strong wall. In 1837 it contained 110 houses, 40 European inhabitants, and a garrison of 80 men. The port, which is protected by a fort, and in which 180 fishing-boats can anchor, is the principal resort of the coral-fishers on the Barbary coast; and has also a considerable trade in grain, wool, leather, tobacco, wax, &c. The environs are extremely fertile; and the surrounding forests, which abound with cork trees, are the most valuable in Algeria. From 1560 to 1709 C. formed the most important of the French establishments on the coast of Barbary. In 1806 the English endeavoured to obtain it by purchase, and for a time rented it, from the Dey of Algiers; but it again fell into the hands of the French in 1815. It was subsequently destroyed by the Arabs, and presented but a heap of ruins when entered by the French in 1836. In 1846, 116 boats, manned by 1,171 hands, were employed in the fishery of coral off this place. The coral trade is entirely in the hands of Jew merchants, who export the coral of the finest quality to China; that of the second quality to Poland; and that known as barbaresco and robachiara, to the East Indies.-The French circle of C. is inhabited by 38 different tribes, whose numbers are supposed to amount to 42,000, and who cultivate about 35,000 hectares of land in an area of 269,000 hectares. CALLEJONES, a town of Peru, in the prov. and 115 m. NNW of Lima, on the coast of the Pacific. CALLERTON, BLACK, a township in the p. of Newburn, Northumberland. Pop. in 1841, 158. CALLERTON, HIGH, a township, partly in the parishes of Newburn and Ponteland, Northumberland. Pop. in 1841, 131. CALLIAN, or CALLIANI, a large and important town of India, in the Concan, on the S side of the Cailas river, 30 m. NE of Bombay. It has a pop. of 40.000; and has from an early period formed an important commercial emporium. An experimental line of railway is about to be executed between Bombay and C., which may afterwards be pushed forward to the Malsei ghaut, or to Alleh.-Also a small stream in the Concan ghauts in Hindostan, which falls into the sea nearly opposite to Tannah. CALLIAN DROOG, or CALYANADURGA, a town of Hindostan, in the Belaghaut ceded districts, 44 m. SSE of Bellary. CALLIAQUA, a town of the island of St. Vincent, in the p. of St. George, on the S coast, 2 m. ESE of Kingstown. It possesses a good harbour. CALLIES, a town of Prussia, in the prov. of Pomerania, regency of Coslin, circle and 17 m. SSE of Dramburg, and 38 m. E of Stargard. Pop. 2,382. It is well built, contains a castle and a church, and has some manufactories of cloth and tobacco. The environs are extremely marshy. CALLIGNY, a village of France, in the dep. of the Orne, cant. of Tinchebray, near the r. bank of the Noireau, 17 m. N of Domfront. Pop. 1,500. CALLIGRAY, or KILLIGRAY, one of the Western isles of Scotland, in the district of Harris. It is situated about 3 m. E of Bernara; and is about 2 m. long, and 1 m. broad. The S end is a deep moss, almost entirely uncultivated; the N is cultivated with care. The pop. in 1841 was only 7. CALLING, or QUAPELLE RIVER, a river of British North America, in the Swan River district, CALLO ISLAND, a small island of the S Pacific, near the coast of Guayaquil, New Granada, in S lat. 1° 20′, W long. 80° 43'. CALLONI, a town of Syria, in the pash. of Gaza, 13 m. NW of Jerusalem. CALLOO, a commune and town of Belgium, in the prov. of East Flanders, cant. of Beveren, 6 m. WNW of Antwerp, and 28 m. NE of Dendermonde, on the 1. bank of the Schelde. Pop. 2,229. Adjacent is the fort of Liefkenshoek, on the Schelde, opposite Fort Lillo. CALLOSA-DE-ENSARIA, a town of Spain, cap. of a judicial partido, in Valencia, prov. and 32 m. NE of Alicante, near the 1. bank of the Alvir. Pop. 6,000. The environs afford excellent fruit and wine. CALLOSA - DE - SEGURA, a town of Spain, cap. of a judicial partido, in Valencia, prov. and 27 m. WSW of Alicante, and 3 m. NE of Orihuela, near the N bank of the Segura. Pop. 4,500. It has extensive manufactories of charcoal. CALLOW, a hamlet in the p. of and 2 m. from Wirksworth, Derbyshire. Pop. in 1841, 112.-Also a parish of Herefordshire, 33 m. SSW of Hereford, near the Hereford railway and 2 m. from Allensmoor. Area 640 acres. Pop. 171. See also ACORN BURY. CALLU, or CALY NUDDI, a river of Hindostan, which takes its rise in the mountains of Gurhwal, 27 m. ENE of Seharaunpoor, runs S through the prov. of Delhi, inosculating with the Hindan, and passing Meerut and Bulundshuhur. Thence it bends SE; traverses the eastern part of the prov. of Agra; and, after a total course of 330 m., parallel in its entire extent with the Ganges, unites with that river, on the confines of Oude, a little above Canouge. CALLUNDBORG. See KALLUNDBORG. CALM (LA), a commune of France, in the dep. of Aveyron, cant. of Sainte-Genevieve. Pop. 1,498. CALMAR, a town of Sweden, the cap. of the prov. of Smaland, situated on the sound or strait of the same name, in the Baltic, about 5 m. from the island of Oland, which lies directly opposite. It is one of the oldest places in the kingdom, but its site was formerly different, a fire having consumed the original town in 1647. The new town was founded on the island of Quarnholm, a suburb on the mainland occupying the site of the old town, and communicating with it by a bridge of boats. It is built in a form nearly circular; and has somewhat more than 5,000 inhabitants. On the side next the harbour it is surrounded with double walls and ditches; and outside the town, on the sound, stands the castle of C., deemed one of the strongest places in Sweden. The harbour is small, but secure. The commerce of the town was formerly considerable, but a Imit to his authority, were compelled to seek for new settlements terior parts of Asia, and among the cities of the Usbeck Tartars; towards the W. Many of them dispersed themselves in the inothers took refuge in Russia; some thousands fled to Siberia; but the greater number accommodated themselves to the Chinese sovereignty. At present the most numerous and powerful of the C. hordes, according to Grosier, inhabit the country lying between the Caspian sea, Samarcand, and Kashgar. Others are located, with their flocks and herds, on both banks of the Volga, between the Irghis and the Caspian, and extend their excursions on both sides of the Don and the Ural. Before their subjugation and dispersion, the C. were divided into three principal branches: viz., the Sungares, the Coschotes, and the Torgots. Of these, the Sungares were the richest and most formidable, and were engaged in almost perpetual hostili great part of it has been transferred to Stockholm. It consists in the export of timber, tar, and hemp; Before the annexation of the provs. of Schonen and Blekingen to Sweden, C. was considered a barrierfortress, and the key of Gothland. Here was held, in 1397, the general assembly of the states in which was concluded the famous union of C., by which Margaret, styled the Semiramis of the North, united the kingdoms of Sweden. Denmark, and Norway under one head. C. is the see of a bishop, has a fine cathedral church, an academy, and a dockyard. The governor of C. and Oland resides in the neigh-ties with the Mongolians and the Chinese. They resided around bouring palace of Holsmo. In 1800 a fire which broke out in the town of C. destroyed 150 houses, the buildings of the academy, including its library, and part of the public magazine. Steamers ply between C. and Stockholm 3 or 4 times a-week, making the passage in about 24 hours. Mr. Lyell obtained striking proofs of the gradual rising of the land along the coast at this place. The fortress, which appears to have had its foundations originally laid below the level of the sea in 1030, has them now nearly 2 ft. above the level of the Baltic; and part of the moat on one side of the castle, which is believed to have been formerly filled with water from the sea, is now dry, and has its bottom covered with green turf. CALMARZA, a town of Spain, in Aragon, prov. and 19 m. SSW of Catalayud, on the r. bank of the Mesa. CALMBERG, a town of Wurtemberg, in the Black forest, at the junction of a small stream with the Enz, 8 m. NW of Calw. CALMETTE (LA), a commune of France, in the dep. of Gard, cant. of Saint-Chapter. Pop. 1,097. CALMEZ CAPE, a promontory of Nubia, on the Red sea, in N lat. 21° 27', E long. 37° 28'. CALMHOUT, a town of Belgium, in the prov. and 11 m. NNE of Antwerp. Pop. 1,995. CALMINA, a town of Upper Guinea, in the kingdom of Dahomey, 21 m. SE of Abomey. It contains a royal residence. Pop. 15,000. CALMONT, a commune and town of France, in the dep. of the Haute-Garonne, cant. of Nailloux, on the r. bank of the Lers, 26 m. SSE of Toulouse. CALMONT-DE-PLAMAGE, a commune and town of France, in the dep. of Aveyron, cant. of Cassagnes-Bégonhès, 8 m. SSW of Rodez. Pop. 1,397. It contains some china-manufactories. CALMOUTIER, a commune of France, in the dep. of the Haute-Saone, cant. of Noroy-le-Bourg. Pop. 920. CALMUCKS, KALMUKS, OELOETS, or ELUTпs, supposed to be the Hippophagi of Pliny and other ancient historians, a tribe of independent Tartars, and a branch of those nomade barbarians, who, in the beginning of the 13th cent., under the name of Moguls, and led on by Ghengis Khan, subdued and desolated the finest provinces of Asia. They are the only Tartar nation that has retained the ancient language of the Moguls in all its purity. They have also preserved the manners, the dress, and the religion, which all historians have attributed to these conquerors: and their Contaish, or Great khan, claims the honour of being the true descendant of the Great Ghengis. The appellation of Calmuc or Khalimuk was bestowed upon them by the Mahonmedan Tartars, as a term of reproach, on account of their pagan worship; but they have a better right to the name of Moguls than their neighbours on the frontiers of China, now known by the name of Mongoulians; indeed the territory of this people, in the beginning of the last cent., embraced the very states which Ghengis left to his successors, and comprehends the most considerable and richest part of Tartary. From the river Jaik. or Ural. on the W, their possessions extended along the S bounda ries of Siberia, as far as the river Selinga on the E; and, skirting the empire of China, they reached on the S towards the confines of the kingdom of Ava. Turning then to the NW, they were bounded by the Mogul empire, Great Bucharia, and Turkistan. These extensive territories, however, have been greatly curtailed by the successive encroachments both of the Russians and the Chinese. The C. were driven from Tibet in 1720; and about forty years after, Kiang Long extended his dominions as far as the Belur-Tagh; so that such of the Calmucks as refused to sub the Balkash lake, and its rivers Chuy and li; and held in tribute the Great Kirghissian horde, and the towns of Little Bucharia.-The Coschotes or Khoschots, upon the conquest of Tibet, became subject to the Chinese, and still continue under the protection of that power, except a smaller part which had retired to the Irtish, and fell under the dominion of the Soongarians. Those under the dominion of China are estimated at 50,000, and hero, from the courage which they displayed in the wars of are said to have derived their name,-which implies warrior or Ghengis.-The Torgots, or Torgauts, who had separated from the Sungares, and had formed themselves into a particular horde, settled at an early period in the steppes of the Volga, and received from the Russians the appellation of the Volgaie C. But many of them being disgusted by the interference of the Russian government with the authority of their taish, or khat. returned in great numbers in 1770 and 1771, over the river Ural on the ice, and across the Kirghissian steppes, into their ancient possessions in Sungaria. The first emigration consisted of 30,000 families, and the second of 50,000 families; being 80,000 families in the whole, or about 500,000 persons. Their plan of retreat was so well laid, and so ably executed, that in spite of Russian vigilance and Russian pursuit,-in spite of opposition from their hereditary enemies of the great Kirghissian horde,they reached the Balkash Nur, and were received by the Chinese guards posted on the Tekis and Eli. Pasture-lands on the banks of these two streams were assigned them by orders of Kienlong, but the chiefs with their families were all sent, under a strong guard, to Pekin, there to remain as hostages to ensure the submission and peaceable conduct of the rest. The present C. possessors of Sungaria, under the sovereignty of China, are the Torgauts, the most numerous body, and the Derbets, whose numbers are unknown. These different branches, however, since their expulsion from their ancient habitations, have become so incorporated with one another, and are so assimilated in manners and customs, that most of them are ignorant of their particular origin. The C. are distinguished from the other nomade nations of Asia, by their peculiar habits and appearance. They are com only of a middle size, athletic, and well-made; the only per sonal defect which is frequent among them is their having the thighs and legs somewhat bent. Pallas says they are generally slender and delicate in their limbs; that he never saw a single man among them who was very corpulent. Their countenance is at first extremely forbidding; a large head, round face, dark olive complexion, high and prominent cheek-bones, enormous ears, small sparkling black eyes widely separated from each other, and placed obliquely and downwards towards the nose, a flat short broad nose scarcely rising above the level of the face, and turned up, exposing to view two immense nostrils, thick and fleshy lips, exceedingly white teeth, a short chin, a thin and scanty beard, and black coarse hair tied up in a long queue behind, are the characteristic features of a C. Many of the women, however, have rather agreeable features, and delicate complexions, which are set off by the fine black of their hair; some of the higher classes among them would even be considered as beauties by Europeans. The dress of the men consists chiefly of a shirt and drawers made of cotton, or sometimes of sheep-skin; a small round bonnet trimmed with fur, and ornamented with a tuft of silk, or horse hair of a red colour; and immensely large boots. They have also a kind of doublet made of sheep-skin, and without sleeves, which, in the N tracts, they wear over the shirt. In summer many of them go entirely naked, with the exception of a cloth bound round the waist. A cotton shirt is the only dress of the women during summer; in winter they wear a long cloak of sheep-skin, and a bonnet like that of their husbands. They wear in their ears shells, and large mock pearls of a very irregular shape. The married women wear their hair braided, and falling over the shoulders on each side of the face, but fastened at the end with bits of lead or tin: a virgin has only a single braid hanging down the middle of her back. equipped for war, many of the C. wear a helmet of steel, with a gilded crest, from which hangs a net-work of iron rings as low as the eyebrows in front, and falling behind over the neck and shoulders; and their bodies are sometimes protected by a coat of mail formed of iron or steel rings netted together, which adapts itself to the shape, and yields readily to all the positions of the body. These flexible coats of mail are manufactured in Persia, and are reckoned as equal in value to 50 horses. A cheaper sort, made of scales of tin, sells for 6 or 8 horses. Their arins are bows and arrows, lances, sabres, and poniards. Firearmis are confined to the higher orders, and are kept with great When Care. Their best bows are made of the wild goat's horn, or of whalebone, and the common kind of maple, or thin slips of elm or fir, fastened together, and bound with a covering of linden or birch bark. The C., according to Mr. Tooke, are divided into three ranks; the nobility, who are called 'white-bones;' the common people, who pay tribute, and are termed black-bones;' and the clergy. The noble ladies are called white flesh,' and the common women black flesh.' In time of war, upon the first summons, every man must appear on horseback before his prince, who dismisses such as are unfit for service. All the subjects belonging to one prince are termed an oluss, and are divided into imaks, each containing from 150 to 300 families, and commanded by a saises or noble. But though each oluss has its petty prince, or taish, yet they all acknowledge more or less the sovereignty of the contaish or Great khan, whose authority is considered as perfectly established and sacred, but whose interference is only admitted in affairs of general importance. The C. are of a social and hospitable disposition, faithful to their chiefs, affable, and eager to oblige. They possess a vivacity and good humour which seldom forsakes them, even in their most wretched state; for a C. is scarcely ever seen dejected by sorrow, and is never subdued by despair. They are, however, slovenly and dirty in the extreme, destitute of true courage, and greatly addicted to cheating. "Within a C. tent," says Dr. Clarke, "we found some women, though it was difficult to distinguish the sexes, so horrid and inhuman was their appearance. Two of them, covered with grease, were lousing each other, and it surprised us that they did not discontinue their work, or even look up as we entered." "The old women," continues this celebrated traveller, were eating raw horse-flesh, tearing it off from large bones which they held in their hands. Others, squatted on the ground, were smoking, with pipes not 2 inches in length, much after the manner of the Laplanders." But these defects may in some measure be overlooked on account of the good qualities which they possess, and which render them so superior to the Mahommedan Tartars. Robberies are rare among them, except against a hostile tribe, and murder is almost unknown. They pay great respect to old age; and though of a choleric temperament, and fierce when irritated, they live much more amicably together than could be expected from their independent and migratory manner of life. If any one receives a present of meat or drink, he divides it faithfully with his companions; and if a relation has lost his flocks or other substance, by war or accident, he is always most liberally assisted. "A C., provided with a horse," says Professor Pallas, "with arms and equipage, may ramble from one place to another, for three months together, without taking with him either money or provisions. Wherever he comes, he finds either distant relations or friends to whom he is attached by the ties of hospitality, and from whom he meets with kind reception. Even though he should lodge in the first cottage he finds upon his road, his wants will be supplied with cordiality. A stranger, of whatever nation, never fails to be well received by a C.; and he may depend upon having his effects in security, the moment he has put himself under the protection of his host; for to rob a guest is considered by the C. as the most abominable of all crimes." The tents of the C., which are their only habitations, and are in general use with all ranks, from the prince to the peasant, are of a circular forin, with a conical roof, and a hole at the top. They are constructed of cane or wood, and covered with felt made of camel's hair or wool. Those of the chiefs are large and wellfurnished, having the floors covered with mats or Indian carpets, and the beds hung with rich curtains. An encampment of the principal hordes presents the appearance of a city, with regular streets sometimes extending a mile in length, and containing aninerous shops in which several of the more refined arts are practised in considerable perfection. They have artificers in copper, brass, and iron; goldsmiths, who make trinkets for their women, idols of gold and silver, and vessels for their altars; also workmen who are expert at inlaid work, enamelling, &c. "One very remarkable fact," says Dr. Clarke, "and which I should hesitate in asserting, if I had not found it confirmed by the observations of other travellers, is, that from time immemorial, the oriental tribes of C. have possessed the art of making gunpowder. They boil the efflorescence of nitrate of potass in a strong ley of poplar and birch ashes, and leave it to crystallize; after which, they pound the crystals, with two parts of sulphur and as much charcoal; then, wetting the mixture, they place it in a cabiron over a charcoal fire, until the powder begins to granulate. Upon the breaking up of an encampment-which, in sammer, generally takes place every eight or ten days--in order to go in search of fresh pasture, their first care is to despatch some of their people to find out a proper situation for the tents of the khan, the lama, and the huts containing the idols. The tents are then struck; and, being so made as to take to pieces and fold up in a small compass, are easily packed upon the backs of the camels or oxen. The camel that is loaded with the most precious furniture is decorated with bells, and marches before; the rest following one behind another. On these occasions, the women are dressed in their best clothes; and beguile the tediousness of the journey with merriment and songs. As the riches of the C. consist entirely in their flocks, it is from them they draw their whole means of subsistence. They never cultivate the ground, though they inhabit extensive tracts of country equal in climate and fertility, perhaps, to any in the world. Their herds roam at large over the most luxuriant pas tures, which, when withered by the droughts of summer, they renew by setting fire to the old grass. Upon these occasions, the flames will sometimes extend nearly 100 leagues; and, within 15 days, the country is again covered with verdure. A wealthy C. possesses several hundreds of cattle, sometimes thousands; but ten cows with a bull, and eight mares with a stallion, are considered a sufficient independence They have few camels, and these are confined entirely to the rich and the priests. Their horses are small, but swift, and capable of galloping for several hours successively without injury, or of passing a whole day without drinking. They castrate the greater part of their male foals, and slit their nostrils that they may breathe more freely when they run. Their horned cattle are of a beautiful shape; and their sheep are the same as those which are found throughout all Great Tartary. They are exceedingly fat, with large tails, and broad pendent ears; and their wool is so coarse that it is fit for nothing but making felt. The principal food of the C. consists in the milk and flesh of their cattle; but horse-flesh is esteemed the best. They are, however, not very delicate in this respect, as they eat not only such of their cattle and horses as have died of disease, but dogs, cats, marmots, rats, and almost every kind of wild beasts; and the poor sometimes even feed upon carrion. Their favourite dish during a journey, is a piece of flesh placed under the saddle of the horse, which, by warmth and pressure, becomes a tender and palatable steak. They eat also the roots of chervil, dandelion, and several other species of wild plants, which they use both raw and boiled. Of milk they make a fermented liquor called koumiss; from which they distil a spirit similar to brandy, which they call rack or racky, and of which they are remarkably fond. The koumiss is generally made of mare's milk, which is always preferred to that which comes from the cow, as it yields three times more spirit. It is prepared by mixing a sixth part of warm water with any given quantity of warm milk,-which in summer must have previously stood twenty-four hours, and in winter three or four days; to this is added a little old koumiss, by way of yeast: the mass is then agitated, and sometimes artificial heat is applied to produce the vinous fermentation. From this substance their rack is distilled; and Dr. Clarke, who witnessed the process in a C. camp, has given us the following account of it: "The simplicity of the operation, and of their machinery, was very characteristic of the antiquity of this chemical process. Their still was constructed of mud or very coarse clay; and for the neck of the retort they employed a cane. The receiver of the still was entirely covered by a coating of wet clay: the brandy had already passed over. The woman who had the management of the distillery, wishing to give us a taste of the spirit, thrust a stick, with a small tuft of camels' hair at its end, through the external covering of clay, and thus collecting a small quantity of the brandy, she received it into the palm of her dirty and greasy hand, and, having tasted the liquor, presented it to our lips." This liquor is clear and weak, but its strength is sometimes increased by a second distillation, and it is capable of being kept a long time in glass bottles. They are also extremely fond of tobacco and tea; but, as the last article is difficult to be obtained, the poorer classes supply its place with several kinds of wild plants, such as the seed of the sharp-leaved dock, the root of the wild angelica, the seed of the Tartarian maple, and a species of liquorice. Their principal amusements are hunting, wrestling, archery, and horse-racing; indeed, the greater part of a C.'s time is spent in diversions. They are excellent horsemen, being trained to riding from their infancy. The women, however, are as expert at this exercise as the men, and manage the animal with more gracefulness and skill; for a male C. on horseback, though he never loses his seat, appears as if he were intoxicated and about to fall off every instant. So partial are they to this amusement, that even the ceremony of marriage is sometimes performed on horseback. "A girl is first mounted," says the intelligent traveller whom we have so often quoted, "who rides off at full speed. Her lover pursues; and, if he overtakes her, she becomes his wife. But it sometimes happens that the woman does not wish to marry the person by whom she is pursued, in which case she will not suffer him to overtake her; and we were assured, that no instance occurs of a C. girl being thus caught, unless she has a partiality for her pursuer. If she dislikes him, she rides, to use the language of English sportsmen, 'neck or nothing,' until she has completely escaped, or until the pursuer's horse is tired out, leaving her at liberty to return, to be afterwards chased by some more favoured admirer." The C. are passionately addicted to gambling, and will sometimes sit whole nights at cards, until they have lost all that they possess, even their very clothes. This game, however, is only permitted during their festivals; at all other times it is prohibited under a severe penalty. They have also chess, draughts, backgammon; and the young people amuse themselves with singing, and dancing to the balalaika, or two-stringed lute. In their drinking parties-which are very frequent, and to which every one brings his share of rack or koumiss-harmony and decorum are said to prevail; and, though they are generally kept up until the stock of liquor is expended, yet they are seldom attended either with riot or intoxication. The most common diseases to which this people are subject, are the itch, and malignant fevers, which arise from their gross diet and want of cleanliness; and during the heats of summer these last are sometimes very fatal. The venereal disorder, to which they give the name of the housedisease,' as properly belonging only to such as dwell in houses, is not uncommon; but it is not often found among the lower orders |