years Livonia remained part of the Russian Empire, until it was overrun by the Germans in 1917, and Riga fell on 3 September. That event led the Kaiser to declare that the Germanization of the Baltic lands was "now made secure for all time." Under the terms of the Brest-Litovsk peace treaty, signed by the Bolshevist leaders on 3 March 1918, Russia agreed to abandon territories amounting to nearly a quarter of the total area of European Russia, in which Livonia, Esthonia and Courland were included. Under the terms of the armistice, dictated by the Allies to Germany on 11 Nov. 1918, all German troops were to be withdrawn from territories which had before the war belonged to Russia, as soon as the Allies should decide. On 15 Nov. 1918 it was announced that Livonia, Esthonia and Courland had decided to form a joint Baltic state.

LIVRE, le-vr', an ancient French coin, now superseded by the franc as the unit of value. The livre was equal to about 20 francs ($4). The livre was also the unit of weight until superseded by the kilogram - the equivalent of two livres in the metric system.

His

LIVY (TITUS LIVIUS), Roman historian: b. Patavium (Padua), 59 B.C.; d. there, 17 B.C. He spent most of his time at Rome, but kept aloof from active political life, although among his friends were numbered the most eminent men of his day. In spite of his republican leanings he was befriended by Augustus, who counted him, with Virgil and Horace, as one of the literary ornaments of his court. principal work is the 'History of Rome' in 142 books (Titi Livii ab Urbe Condita Libri), which comprehends a period extending from the building of the city to the year 9 B.C. Only 35 of these books are extant, namely, the first 10, which cover the period ending 293 B.C., and the 25 from the 21st to the 45th books, which comprehend the years between 218 and 167 B.C., as well as a number of fragments and short abstracts, or tables of contents of all the books excepting the 136th and the 137th. Livy undertook this work, as he states in his preface, partly that he might plunge his mind into things of the past, and so forget the grievances of the present, and partly that he might spread out before his contemporaries a picture of the nation's ancestral glories. He has indeed produced a work which is truly national, which has always received the admiration and esteem of antiquity and is in modern times regarded as one of the most precious relics of Latin literature. Since his time it has been the source of all knowledge of the period it deals with. He began its composition between the years 27 B.C. and 25 B.C., and published it from time to time in a series of detached parts; the present division into decades is of later origin. It appears that he was engaged upon his history up to the time of his death, but failed to carry it on to the end he had meditated, which would have included the death of Augustus. He had a practical object in view in the accomplishment of this task, but this was less to achieve a critical and scientific exploration of the past than to produce a moving, lifelike and readable representation of the time and country in which he lived. With this end in view he has chosen a style of his own; not the transparent splendor of Cicero, nor the condensed and epigrammatic

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pungency of Tacitus, nor the dilettante, though sometimes effective, archaism of Sallust. His narrative moves along with stately dignity; it teems with anecdote and glows with patriotic emotion. He employs a phraseology remarkable for copiousness, for picturesqueness, for vivid description and occasionally for an eloquence that is burnished into poetic lustre. His materials must mainly have been derived from preceding annalists, but he weaves into his work the local traditions of a mythic age and rivals Virgil in his love for the fables of Tuscany and Latium. His account of the Punic wars he draws from Polybius. We must not, however, expect to find in his writings a clear account of the origin and development of the Roman constitution. He seems to have cared little for the study of constitutional law, and even less for that of military art. Yet his political views were very decided, and in his account of the civil war, which resulted in the downfall of the republic, he shows himself a strong partisan of the aristocratic party, so that Augustus did not hesitate to style him a Pompeian. The historic basis for the Roman history of Livy cannot be fully understood without reading the works of Niebuhr. Livy's complete works have been published by Gronov (1679); Drakenborch (1828); Zingerle (1883); an English translation appears in the Bohn Library, and a complete German translation by Klaiber and Teuffel appeared (Stuttgart 185456). Fügner's 'Lexicon Livianum (1889), although incomplete, is important in Livian literature. Consult Niemann, 'Etudes sur la Langue et Littérature de Live' (1884); Taine, Essai sur Tite Live) (1888); Madvig, 'Emendationes Livianæ (1877).

LIXIVIATION, lik-siv'i-ä'shun, the process of separating by percolation a soluble from an insoluble substance. "Leaching" is the common English term for this process. Advantage is taken of the different degrees of solubility of In the components of the chosen solvent. metallurgy the process has been used from the earliest times in the extraction of copper and silver ores. Solvents are employed to dissolve the silver, after which the silver is precipitated from the solution. Usually sodium hyposulphite is used as solvent and sodium sulphide as the precipitant. In recent years investigations have resulted in discovering lixiviation processes which may be employed on a commercial scale for ore extraction. See COPPER; SILVER.

LIZA. By Ivȧn Sergeyevitch Turgenief. There are several translations for the original title of this novel, 'Dvoryánskoye Gnyezdó -A Nest of Nobles,' 'A Nobleman's Nest,' A House of Gentlefolk. The title is evidently more or less symbolical, The Nest' not referring to the residence of any particular gentleman or nobleman. The action passes mainly in the city home where Liza lives with her worldly-minded mother and her shrewishtempered great-aunt. The principal character, Lavretsky, occupies only for a brief time a small country-house which had belonged to his father's sister. The preliminary chapters are largely devoted to tracing the heredity of the various actors in the drama and portray selfish men and women of an earlier generation and their environment. When these explanations have been cleared away and one

understands the hidden forces of relentless circumstances, the development of the simple yet unexpected complication of the plot is conducted with a masterly knowledge of human nature. The solution of the tragedy of disappointed love is seen to be in exact accordance with the psychology of the persons involved.

Lizaviėta Mikhailovna Kalėtina, known as Liza, is the daughter of a government official, stubborn and harsh, who died when she was 10 years of age, leaving a large property in the hands of his widow, Marya Dmitrievna, a woman fairly well educated, sentimental and amiable when her will was not crossed. During her impressionable childhood Liza was given over to the care of the old nurse, Agafya Vlásievna, who had occupied an equiv ocal position in her grandfather's household but on the old man's death had become fanatically devout. Liza's mother made no attempt to offset the influence of those early religious practices. At the beginning of the story Liza is about 20, very pretty, graceful, winning, unselfish and affectionate, "loving everyone in general but no one in particular." When a distant kinsman of the family, Feodor Ivanovitch Lavretsky, returns to Russia after a long residence abroad, she considers it her duty to try to reconcile him with his wife, whom he had repudiated on account of her immoral relations with a Frenchman. Lavrétsky is no longer young; but he is still attractive and Turgenief evidently did his best to depict him as a sympathetic type of the Russian gentleman, in spite of his birth (his mother had been a servant maid, first seduced and then hastily married against his tyrannical grandfather's wishes). Notwithstanding a one-sided and distorted education, Lavrétsky has done his best to remedy the defects in his training and is now ready to take up his duties as benefactor to his serfs and as manager of his large estates. While studying at the university he had married Varvara Pavlovna Korobuina, the beautiful daughter of a general who had been disgraced by reason of certain dishonest practices. She was unworthy of him and when he found proofs of her unfaithfulness, he settled a pension on her and left her. He is immediately attracted by Liza, whom her mother wishes to marry to Vladimir Nikolayevitch Pánshin, a good-looking young official who had been sent to the provincial town of O- (evidently intended to mean Orel where Turgènief was born). Pánshin is the type of the brilliant and superficial Russian, half-educated after the Western mode, speaks several languages, plays the piano, composes sentimental songs, sketches with a clever hand, acts well in private theatricals and considers any woman as legitimate game. He and Lavrétsky are admirably contrasted. When Liza, at the fateful moment before she has made up her mind to accept Pánshin's offer, reads the newspaper report of Varvara Pavlovna's death, she confesses her love for Lavrétsky. They have one hour of happiness; then Fate interposes. Lavrétsky's wife is not dead: she arrives at Lavrétsky's house with her little daughter. Liza begs Lavrétsky to forgive Varvåra Pavlovna and she herself follows the example of her old nurse and takes refuge in a nunnery in a distant part of Russia. Varvara

Pavlovna is the exact antithesis of Liza: she is beautiful but false. She immediately begins a new intrigue with Pánshin, and again Lavrétsky finds himself alone. Eight years later he revisits the house where Liza had lived. "The Nest" still belongs to the family though all the old people are dead; a new generation is living there. He catches a glimpse of their gaieties; he sees the bench on which he and Liza had sat in the bliss of their love confessed; he touches the piano: "a faint pure tone rings out and trembles in his heart." He realizes that he had ceased to think of his own happiness; his mind is calm but he is old, old in body and in soul; but he is not unhappy; breathing a silent blessing on youth, he turns away "with sadness yet without envy and drives slowly to his deserted home.

'Liza' belongs to a Russia vastly different from that of our day. The age in which it was written has passed, but the pictures which it gives of the period will always be treasured by mankind. It was first published in 1858, just before the Crimean War and the liberation of the serfs, and reflects the ideas that were beginning to ferment in Russia toward the end of the reign of Nicholas I. It was translated into. English by W. R. S. Ralston and published in 1869 (new ed., 1884). It was included in a five-volume translation of Turgenief's masterpieces in 1889. It is included in the complete edition of Turgènief translated by Mrs. Constance Garnett and it makes the fourth volume of the complete works of Turgénief's novels translated by Miss Isabel F. Hapgood, published in 1903.

NATHAN HASKELL DOLE.

LIZARD FISH, a fish of the family Synodontide of the order Iniomi, remarkable for its wide mouth and very long body. It abounds inshore in tropical seas but is sometimes found in deep water. A well-known Antillean species is the Synodus fœtens, variously known as galliwasp, soap-fish and, in Latin-America, lagarta. It is olive above and yellow beneath, attains a length of 12 inches and is very vora

cious.

LIZARD POINT, or THE LIZARD, England, a headland in Cornwall, 181 feet high, forming the southernmost point of Great Britain, 24 miles southeast of Land's End, and having two lighthouses with flashes seen 21 miles, 230 feet above sea-level. The Lizard was the Promontorium Damnonium of Ptolemy. The name is also applied to the peninsula, with its broken and charming coastline, off which are the Manacle Rocks, a dangerous reef which has been the scene of many shipwrecks.

LIZARD, a subclass of reptiles, whose anatomical features and classification have been described under LACERTILIA. A general account of their habits and ecology has been reserved for the present article. Lizards as a group are of comparatively recent origin, most of the fossils known not being older than the middle of the Tertiary, when representatives of many of the modern genera were in existence. The Pleistocene rocks of Queensland have furnished skeletons of several gigantic extinct representatives of the monitor family, one of which (Megalonia) was about 30 feet long. The lizards, as a group, are remarkable

for the great variety in size and shape, and in the character of the skin-armature and the dentition. These variations are usually manifestly adaptations to the local environment.

Lizards abound in all the warmer parts of the world, most numerously in the tropics. In North America only three or four species pass the northern boundary of the United States, penetrating southern Ontario in the east and British Columbia on the Pacific side of the continent, where, in the arid Southwest, most of the species known in this country are to be seen. Most kinds of lizards are restricted in range, being adapted to a definite sort of environment, yet the families may have a very wide distribution. Thus that of the geckos (q.v.) is spread all over the tropical and subtropical zone of the Old World, and also in South America; and it includes both arboreal and terrestrial forms, diversified by modifications of the type to meet conditions as different as are the steaming jungles of Malaya from the sandy deserts of Persia and Africa. On the other hand the big monitors (Varanida), scattered from the Nile to the Philippines and Australia, are able to seek their prey on burning desertground, in and under water, and among the branches of forest-trees. This is a case of remarkable versatility, for there is little adaptive alteration of structure in the family. Again, similarity of habitat and local influence sometimes produce striking likeness in appearance in totally disconnected species, as, for example, our spiny-coated horned toads and the Australian molochs (q.v.), which are not at all related structurally. A large number of lizards belonging to widely different families have taken to a more or less complete underground life; and in these the limbs show reduction from a slight degree in some to entire absence in others, for instance the boa-like glass-snake (q.v.). Many species are good swimmers, and are of aquatic habit to a large extent, but only one truly marine species is known the large, gregarious sea-lizard (Am blyrhynchus) of the Galapagos Islands, which feeds on seaweed, gathered at a considerable depth; yet it is reluctant to take to the water except for food. The American iguanas, however, although habitually residents of tree-tops, stay as near to rivers as they can, and plunge into them for safety whenever frightened.

Lizards are primarily terrestrial animals, and most sorts run with amazing swiftness, usually on all four feet, but the curious frilled lizard (q.v.) of Australia holds up its fore parts and runs on its hind legs when in haste. Except a few heavy forms, and those that dwell in burrows, lizards are extremely agile, climbing walls and tree-trunks, and running and leaping about their branches, with speed and precision; and some Oriental species, as the flying dragon (q.v.), have expansions of the skin about the forearms enabling them to make long, sailing leaps through the air.

The senses of sight and hearing are highly developed, as is requisite for their livelihood. Most species are carnivorous, the larger kinds feeding on small mammals, birds and their eggs, and the lesser reptiles, including other lizards. These are seized by a rush and leap, and are passed down the throat whole. Many of the smaller kinds live altogether on worms

and insects, the latter caught in most cases' by a swift dart and recovery of the sticky tongue, a method peculiarly characteristic of the chameleons (q.v.). The tongue in this. group assumes a wide variety of shapes, in› some families having a slender, forked form like that in snakes, and acting only as a feeler. One lizard only, the Gila monster (q.v.), is aided by the injection of poison into its victim when he bites it, and this is the most sluggish of all its race. The iguana family and certain other species eat vegetable food.

Lizards themselves are sought as prey by all: sort of carnivorous beasts, birds and reptiles, in avoiding which they must rely mainly on their alertness and agility in dodging or outrunning the foe. Most of them are conspicuously colored, and many exhibit as great gaudiness as do tropical birds, so that this class of animals would seem to have been denied any benefit that might accrue from "concealing coloration" as ordinarily understood. One re-. markable peculiarity of lacertilian structure, however, is perhaps protective, although the expedient is rather a costly one, namely, the ability of most lizards to part easily with the tail. This is the part of the lizard most likely. to be snapped at by a captor, the more so as it is commonly held aloft when its owner runs, and breaking off easily enables the remainder of the lizard to go on running, while the baffled foe contemplates his useless booty. A new tail speedily replaces the lost member,: but it is never quite as good as the original one. Some small lizards, when startled, cast off their tails with a jerk before they are touched; on the other hand, the big monitors indulge in no such sacrifice, but utilize their long and strong tails as powerful whip-like. weapons of defense.

Reproduction in lizards as a rule is by a small number of eggs laid in damp earth, but a few, as the skinks, bring forth young alive. Lizards are of service to mankind in destroying insects and other vermin, and in the tropics are welcomed in native houses for that reason. The water monitor is a valuable curb. on crocodiles, by devouring their eggs and young. Many lizards furnish good human food, especially the larger iguanas, that are a regular part of the aboriginal diet in South America, as are other lizards among the Blackfellows of Australia. Certain species also make amusing pets. Consult, besides general works, Gadow, 'Amphibia and Reptiles' (New York 1901); Pycraft, 'Story of Reptile Life' (London 1905); Ditmars, The Reptile Book' (New York 1907); Boulenger, Reptiles and Batra-" chians' (London 1914).

ERNEST INGERSOLL.

LLAMA, läʼmą, one domesticated form (often specifically distinguished as Lama glama) of the huanaco (q.v.), the other being the woolbearing alpaca (q.v.). It is larger than the wild huanaco (about three feet at the shoulder), and may be white, brown, black or variegated with patches of all three colors. This animal was domesticated long before the era of the Incas. When the Spaniards conquered Peru they found hundreds of thousands in use as riding animals and beasts of burden in the southern part of the country; and as they were the only domestic ungulate of the kind in South America their importance was very great. The