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chief doctrine, as announced in its declaration of principle, is that "subjection to and support of any ecclesiastical power not created and controlled by American citizens, and which claims equal, if not greater, sovereignty than the government of the United States of America, is irreconcilable with American citizenship"; and it accordingly opposes "the holding of offices in national, State, or municipal government by any subject or supporter of such ecclesiastical power." Another of its purposes is to prevent all public encouragement and support of sectarian schools. It does not constitute a separate political party, but seeks to control existing parties and to elect friendly and defeat objectionable candidates by the concerted action of citizens affiliated with all parties, much after the style of the American or "Know-Nothing" party. The order was founded 13 March 1887 and once claimed a membership of over 2,000,000.

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, a society founded in 1892 for the advancement of psychology as a science. Persons are eligible to membership who are engaged in this work. Membership, 227. Office of secretary, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.

AMERICAN PUBLISHING. See PUBLISHING, AMERICAN.

AMERICAN QUARRYING. See QUAR

RYING.

AMERICAN RAILROADS. See AMERICAN STREET RAILWAYS; RAILWAY SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES.

AMERICAN REPUBLICS, Bureau of. See PAN-AMERICAN UNION.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION. See

UNITED STATES-AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

AMERICAN RIVER, in north-central California, is formed by the union of its northern and southern forks near the western boundary of the county of El Dorado, whence it flows southwest between the counties of Placer and Sacramento and falls into Sacramento River near the city of Sacramento. For about six miles it has been rendered navigable for small steamers. The north fork, considered by some as the true American River, rises among the hills at the base of the Sierra Nevada, flows west-southwest, forming the boundaries between Placer and El Dorado counties for 100 miles, and unites with the south fork 30 miles above the city of Sacramento. The south fork flows from Bonpland Lake through El Dorado County and forms part of the division between the counties of Sacramento and El Dorado.

AMERICAN-SCANDINAVIAN FOUNDATION, The. The foundation was incorporated in 1911 under the laws of New York with the object of cultivating closer intellectual relations between the Scandinavian countries and America and strengthening the friendly bonds between American-Scandinavians. It was endowed by the late Niels Poulson, president of the Hecla Iron Works in Brooklyn, himself of Danish birth. The income from one-half million dollars is administered by a self-perpetuating board of 15 trustees. The Foundation maintains an office with a salaried

It

secretary and staff and an organization of associates numbering upward of 4,000. awards annually six fellowships to Scandinavians for study in the United States and a number of scholarships to Americans for research work in Scandinavia. It publishes regularly two series of books, The Scandinavian Classics' and 'The Scandinavian Monographs,' and a bimonthly illustrated magazine, The American-Scandinavian Review. Address, 25 West 45th Street, New York.

AMERICAN SCENIC AND HISTORIC PRESERVATION SOCIETY. A national organization of men and women incorporated by the legislature of the State of New York in 1895. Its aims are the protection of natural scenery, the preservation of historic landmarks and the improvement of cities. In pursuance of these objects it is empowered to receive by purchase, gift or otherwise, and to hold in fee or trust, real or personal property necessary thereto; and it is required to make to the legislature an annual report of its affairs. Among its activities since its foundation have been the following: The purchase of the New York State Park at Stony Point, and of Washington's headquarters in New York city, the creation of a State reservation at Watkins Glen, laws for the protection of Niagara Falls, acquiring the site of Major André's execution; and it has charge of Fort Brewerton, and Philipse Manor Hall.

AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF LAW. See LAW, AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF.

AMERICAN SCULPTURE, Historical Subjects in. American art in the Colonial and Revolutionary periods was confined chiefly to portrait painting. At the beginning of the 19th century there was to all practical purposes no such thing as an art of sculpture in the United States. Mural painting, as a branch of art adapted especially for depicting historical subjects, was still farther away in the future. The country was not ready for the development of art along the lines of history and commemoration of historical characters. It was not until the latter half of the 19th century that there began to be real activity on such lines.

At first, when statues or busts of pioneers and patriots began to be in demand for public institutions or places, notably the national capitol at Washington, it was customary to go abroad to find some artist, possibly a Frenchman or Englishman, capable of doing the work. And when there began to be Americans of real talent who devoted themselves to sculpture they at first were chiefly absorbed in producing gods and goddesses of Greece and Rome, more or less poor imitations of those of classic times, rather than in creating things having to do with their own country and its annals and customs. It is chiefly in the past 25 or 30 years that American sculptors have found their main inspiration in national subjects and have devoted themselves so largely to themes associated more or less directly with American history.

A great influence upon this phase of American art has been exercised by the wars of the nation, chiefly the Revolution and the Civil War, while the recent centenary of the War of 1812 and the close of a century of peace with Great Britain witnessed the dedication of a strikingly large number of works of art having to do with

this commemoration and furnishing proof of the good effect of such celebrations and the incidents recalled upon contemporary art.

Another influence which should be noted is that of the great international expositions of the last quarter century. Most of them had some historical motives which have been expressed in the architectural schemes and in the decorative features, and the latter, while usually temporary, have exerted a powerful and farreaching force, affecting public taste in many ways and often leading to more permanent decorations of similar type in connection with public places and institutions. Hence there has been, partly as a result of the influence emanating from these expositions, a marked increase in the application of the art of the sculptor to the embellishment of buildings like capitols, court-houses, libraries and even business structures of a semi-public character. There have arisen within this period the Congressional Library at Washington, one of the most interesting and educational buildings in the world, in its artistic features, so largely associated with historical characters or subjects; the Pennsylvania State capitol at Harrisburg, with its sculptures by George Grey Barnard, historic or symbolic of national types; the Court-house at Baltimore, with its many excellent decorations; the Appellate Court Building in New York, with its sculptures typical of law and government; the New York Custom House, with its façade figures by Daniel Chester French and others; the State capitols of Wisconsin and Iowa, with their splendid adornments typical of the spirit of the West; the Jefferson Memorial Building at Saint Louis, an outcome of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, with its imposing group by the late Karl Bitter showing Marbois, Livingston and Monroe signing the Louisiana Purchase Treaty; and the statue, also by Bitter, of Thomas Jefferson, during whose administration this momentous purchase was negotiated; and the Cleveland Court-house, with its historical sculpture, including Chief Justice Marshall by Herbert Adams.

The artistic merits of the creations of later years in this field are evident from a comparison between them and earlier efforts of similar type. When the Virginia assembly wished to have a statue of Washington erected at the State capitol there was apparently no American sculptor equal to the task, and Jean Antoine Houdon (q.v.), the French sculptor, was engaged to model one. He came to this country in 1785 for the purpose, and the statue, the original of which is now in the capitol at Richmond, was dedicated in 1788. Another French sculptor, David d'Angers, executed the first statue which was made of Jefferson. By 1832, when the centenary of the birth of Washington was observed, Horatio Greenough, Thomas Crawford and Henry Kirke Brown were coming upon the scene. Greenough was then but 27 and studying in Florence, Italy, but Congress commissioned him to execute a statue of Washington, stipulating that it should not be equestrian and that the countenance should correspond to that of the Houdon Washington. Greenough devoted the greater part of eight years to his commission and received $20,000 for his work, quite a sum in those days. The statue, which is of Carrara marble,

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was brought from Italy in a special ship. It represents the First President in bare legs and a Roman toga, which has slipped from his shoulders, lifting a finger of warning and advice to the nation. It is in the nature of a characterization of him as an Olympian Zeus. It was recently removed from the square in front of the capitol to the Smithsonian Institution. There has been much controversy over this figure and no little ridicule has been cast upon it. Considering the time and circumstances it was no doubt a work of merit but does not, in spite of the classic atmosphere with which it is supposed to be invested, give us that impression of dignity and intellectual force in the Father of his Country which we associate, for instance, with John Q. A. Ward's fine figure of the same statesman in front of the Sub-Treasury in Wall Street, New York, or the splendid equestrian statue by Daniel Chester French in Paris, France, or Henry Kirke Brown's equestrian statue in Union Square, New York. The latter may be classed among the earlier examples of American historical sculpture, but holds its own in spite of the onward march of artistic standards. Another historical work, also by Brown, is the spirited statue of Gen. Winfield Scott in Scott Circle, Washington, D. C. Launt Thompson was another of the early American sculptors who did meritorious historical work. His statue of General Scott at the Soldiers' Home, Washington, is an example. Thomas Ball was another. His equestrian statue of Washington is in Boston ComClark Mills executed equestrian statues of Andrew Jackson and George Washington which are famous. The national capital has the original of his Jackson and New Orleans a replica.

mon.

The historical work of the earliest American sculptors consisted almost entirely of sculpture in the round statues and busts. The idea of portraying historical subjects in reliefs, upon the bases of monuments, or upon panels in doors or upon the walls of buildings, though familiar abroad, was a later development in American art. Perhaps one of the first examples of it was the work of Thomas Crawford. Crawford was one of the pioneers of American sculpture and famous for his statuary in ideal subjects. But he did much of the earlier sculpture of the national capitol illustrating American history and was the sculptor of the bronze doors opening from the Senate portico of the capitol. Its eight panels illustrate such subjects as the "Death of Warren at Bunker Hill,” “Washington's Rebuke of General Charles Lee at Monmouth," "Hamilton's Gallantry at Yorktown," "Washington's Reception at Trenton" and his first inauguration. Crawford designed the House portico doors and Rinehard modeled them. Hiram Powers' groups in the Senate portico are a notable feature of the decorations of the capitol and illustrate "American Development and the Decadence of the Indian Race."

Statuary Hall at the capitol is notable for its historical associations, containing reminders in its gallery of portrait sculptures, by many artists, and some more or less crude and archaic, of the men and women who from the very beginnings of the nation have been the makers of its history. In the decorations of the Congressional Library history and allegory

are so intimately mingled that it is hard to draw the line between them. The wealth of adornment runs the gamut of archæology, history, mythology, allegory, poetry, music, the drama and the arts, but in the statues and busts, the bas-reliefs and medallions, mosaic work, etc., one finds a multitude of records in art of the men and women who founded the nation or guided it upon its destiny.

Revolutionary characters and episodes have been most fruitful in recent years in inspiration to the sculptors. This is owing to many causes but not a little to the work of the patriotic societies, which have been untiring in their study of the period and zealous in efforts to keep green the memory of American warriors and statesmen. Numerous tablets commemorating Revolutionary incidents have been dedicated, some containing sculptural reliefs more or less elaborate, and some statues of Revolutionary characters are traceable to such influences, an example being the figure of Nathan Hale, the Patriot Spy, by Frederic MacMonnies, in City Hall Park, New York, dedicated in 1893, erected by the Society of Sons of the Revolution in the State of New York. This figure, which is superb as a work of art, is scarcely so truthful a portrayal of Hale, however, as are the statues of him executed recently by William Ordway Partridge and Bela L. Pratt, which are the result of very careful historical study. One of Mr. Partridge's Hale figures stands in a park in Saint Paul, Minn., and is the gift of the local Nathan Hale Chaptcr of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Another is in Washington, D. C. Mr. Pratt's work is on the Yale campus at New Haven, Conn., opposite the room Hale occupied as a student at Yale, and was placed there in 1914.

On the Columbia University campus, New York, is Partridge's statue of Hale's friend and fellow officer in the Revolutionary army, Alexander Hamilton, which was recently dedicated. Within the same period, through the efforts of the Sons of the Revolution and Daughters of the American Revolution, one of Long Island's Revolutionary heroes, Gen. Nathaniel Woodhull, president of the Provincial Congress of New York, who was fatally and brutally assaulted by the British near Jamaica, L. I., because he would not say "God save the King," has received sculptural honors, including a fine bronze tablet by Albert Weinert picturing the incident of the attack upon him by the enemy. A movement is in progress at this writing to erect a statue and monument to the principal hero of the battle of Long Island, Gen. Lord Alexander Stirling. The deeds of his command, a militia regiment of Marylanders, are commemorated in a monument in Prospect Park, Brooklyn, but there is as yet no adequate memorial to Stirling though it was largely because of his gallantry in engagements of this battle that the American army was saved from complete destruction and Washington was enabled to make his masterly retreat afterward to New York.

Lafayette, too, has been honored by the dedication of a monument to him at the Ninth Street entrance to Prospect Park, Brooklyn, in May 1917, on which occasion Joffre, Marshal of France and hero of the battle of the Marne, was the guest of honor. A citizen of Brooklyn,

the late Henry Marteau, left $35,000 for this purpose and the commission for the execution of the work was awarded to Daniel Chester French, who completed the model on Lafayette's birthday, 6 Sept. 1916. Many regard it as one of the finest things that have come from Mr. French's studio. The monument symbolizes Franco-American unity, past, present and to come. It embraces a number of features, the central one of which is a bronze tablet upon which in bold relief the sculptor has portrayed Lafayette standing by his horse which is held by an aide. Lafayette wears the uniform of a general of the Continental Army. His drawn sword is in his right hand and his left reposes upon his hip. On each side are accessories relating to the hero's career which round out the composition as a whole.

To the Revolutionary period belong also Mr. French's "The Minute Man," at Concord; the group at Princeton, N. J., by MacMonnies, commemorating the turning of the tide of the Revolution in the battle of Princeton, won by the Americans; C. A. Heber's portrait statue of Franklin, at Princeton; the equestrian statue of Gen. Anthony Wayne at Valley Forge, Pa., by H. K. Bush-Brown, and H. K. Brown's equestrian of Gen. Nathaniel Greene at Washington, while to this and the period immediately succeeding belong Miss Helen Farnsworth Mears' portrait bust in Milwaukee of the soldier and pioneer, Gen. George Rogers Clark, a notable example of historical sculpture by an American woman and a gift of the Society of Children of the Revolution.

The placing of tablets or other forms of memorial marking the scenes of Revolutionary incidents has occurred chiefly, of course, in the vicinity of such battlegrounds and in some cases restoration of the redoubts and fortifications where famous episodes of war transpired has been attempted and tablets, often of considerable artistic merit, have been erected. A case worthy of mention is the restoration of Fort Ticonderoga which has been done at great expense and with high regard for the artistic character of the historical markers.

The monuments and other works of the nature of sculpture occasioned by the centenary of the War of 1812 were wholly or in part the outcome of celebrations like the Oliver Hazard Perry Centennial in Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York in 1913, the "Star Spangled Banner" Centennial at Baltimore in 1914, the centenary of the battles of Plattsburg and Lake Champlain in the same year, the pageant at New Orleans in 1915 in honor of Andrew Jackson's great victory over the British a hundred years before, and the commemoration at the Jefferson Memorial, Saint Louis, in February 1915, of the centenary of the ratification of the Treaty of Ghent. As a result of or in connection with such incidents we have the splendid memorial at Put-in-Bay, Ohio, in honor of the heroes of the battle of Lake Erie and the bronze statue of Perry himself; the Perry monument at Buffalo by Charles H. Niehaus; the statue of Gen. Alexander Macomb at Detroit by A. A. Weinmann; the basrelief in honor of the heroes and pioneers of the 1812 period at the Jefferson Memorial, Saint Louis, by R. P. Bringhurst and Mary E. DeGarmo; the Malmette monument at New Orleans and the Francis Scott Key Memorial