1887 to 1893, then to rise with some rapidity. The figure for 1896 is the largest, showing an increase of more than 100 per cent. over 1895.1 Some valuable roads were opened, and a salt industry, founded at Assab, was very important as looking toward trade with the interior. Had peace prevailed and security been permanently maintained, it seems likely that Italy would have gotten a modest share in the interior trade. But capital refused to emigrate; in 1887, Massowah had not a single merchant house. Many were afraid of finding in Massowah a "new Tonkin"; it had "all the disadvantages and none of the advantages of a territorial colony."2 It is evident that Italians at the present time cherish no enthusiasm for the Eritrean trade, and that the powerful neighbors of Eritrea fear and envy its commerce but little. The development of the marine and of home production would seem not to have been greatly stimulated as a result of the African colonial career.3

The brighter pages of the history of Eritrea are those which deal with the organization and incipient administration of the colony, especially under General Oreste Baratieri. The Italians were a bit theoretical withal, but set out to avoid "Spanish formalism, Dutch egoism, French concentration, and the too diverse conditions of English colonization." They regarded the first need of a country barely out of savagery as that of a simple justice, with rapid and economic procedure, without distinction of legal qualification and backed up by a prompt and vigorous execution. They intended to respect religion, family relations, etc., where not irreconcilable with morale universale, and to maintain a full and severe custody of public order. They hoped to become non dominatori, non tutori, non innovatori, ma amici ed aiutatori, guiding new fellow-citizens toward a betterment that was

'Brunialti, 1. c., 414ff; Statesman's Year Book, 1890 and following years; Almanach de Gotha, 1889 and following.

Brunialti, 1. c., 446-8; Adolfo Rossi, 1. c.

From 1884 to 1896 the total tonnage of Italian seagoing vessels slowly declined; but during the same period the tonnage of Italian steamships rose from 107,542 to 220,508. Something over one-half of the vessels entering and clearing from Massowah were under the Italian flag. Entries to Italian ports increased slowly during the period. Statesman's Year Book, 1885-96; Almanach de Gotha, same years.

comprehended and desired. Certain high-sounding phrases about making the Italian name a synonym for honesty and loyalty, concerning Italian sympathy with others' patriotism, etc., were declaimed; but they were mere words, most clearly set at naught in the dealings with the Negus. For "the Italian government always proceeded towards Abyssinia as toward a people ignorant and barbarous, whom they thought it not only allowable, but easy to deceive."

Before 1892 the colonial government was rather chaotic; a municipal and military, tax imposed in 1888 by Baldissera, the military governor, was stoutly resisted. The military was replaced by a civil government in 1890, troops were withdrawn and an attempt was made to organize commerce and profitable cultivation. The condition of the colony was far from satisfactory, however, and in 1891 the Minister Di Rudini initiated the non-extension policy and sent a commission to examine matters in Eritrea. On February 8, 1892, General Baratieri was appointed civil governor of the province.

The condition of the colony changed at once for the better. Baratieri was well fitted for the office conferred upon him, being familiar with the region and well versed in the duties required. He appointed picked men as the leaders of native troops, established friendly relations with the Negus Menelik and all the chiefs who proffered friendship, and he incited Italian residents to a sharp watch over all "protected" territories. He established within a short time stations of carabinieri with natives under them, dispelled all fear of raids, set about making roads, and, the opportunity presenting itself, dealt the slave trade a crushing blow. "The colony was divided into the district of Massowah, where the administration, judicial, social and political, is carried on as in Italy, and into dependent territories, where the native laws and uses are respected and applied as far as possible; tribunals of arbitration were set up at Cheren and Asmara, judges of the peace in the villages, and everywhere residential officials bound to keep the governor 'up to date' on all military and local matters." The roads were made chiefly by native labor, and artesian wells were driven and light-houses

1 Brunialti, l. c., 409-12; 448.

erected by the same means. Hygiene was attended to; water was analyzed and food inspected. Cisterns were built to preserve the scanty rains and in house-building stone succeeded straw. Schools were established for girls and boys, teaching Italian, Arabic, arithmetic, hygiene and gymnastics. The division of lands was commenced, defining tribal and ecclesiastical property, and marking out such parts as the state could take possession of and distribute to the natives and to Italian emigrants. The entire military department was re-organized; Baratieri insisted that if Italy were to succeed in Africa, it must be with native troops under Italian officers. The Governor did not stay in Massowah; he lived with his soldiers; he had a strong influence over the natives, and suffered no defections of the indigenous forces in battle.1

The right man in the right place, evidently; in November, 1892, the Crown expressed itself as well pleased that the colony had been entirely pacified and was ceasing to be a drain on the finances of the mother-country. Baratieri had aided agriculture and commerce and systematized the public service; it was hoped that the time was not far off when the costs of civil management in the colony would be paid with its own products. The influence of the Italians was extending peacefully and the neighboring tribes were attracted to them by gifts, by the surety of order and peace, and of impartial and prompt justice. Brunialti calls this a modest, but true success, without exaggeration, uncertainty or weakness.2

A special budget was instituted for the colony and attached to that of Foreign Affairs. On December 8, 1892, the powers exercised by the Minister of the Marine over civil services in Eritrea were withdrawn and the corresponding funds inscribed in the colonial budget. Gradually there were added to this budget other expenses formerly charged under the heads of finance, treasury, posts and telegraph, public works, etc. In consequence, an expenditure of 8,000,000 lire was recognized as necessary for all the services for which provision had at first

1

1 Brunialti, 1. c., 464 ff; 473 ff; Italy in Africa, Nation, March 7, 1895 (60;

179).

2 Brunialti, 1. c., 474; 480.

been made fragmentarily, and which finally were to come under the oversight and responsibility of the governor. A distinction was made between civil and military expenses, by which ministerial control and responsibility to Parliament were made less difficult. Attention was directed to tax and customs reforms, security and justice were more firmly established and public instruction made an advance, for the advantage of both Italians and natives.

The Massowah Chamber of Commerce heartily coöperated, suggesting plans for the development of local trade and industry for the benefit of Italy. More roads, commercial as well as strategic, were laid out; a bank of credit was founded at Massowah; construction of markets, magazines and better facilities for ships were regarded as paramount objects. The abolition of customs dues; more frequent postal and caravan communication between Italy and Massowah, Massowah and the principal centers of Abyssinia; the protection of interests, which was always efficacious;—all these advantages worked toward civilization and success. The population seemed to have perfect faith in the government and a beginning of agriculture was made, even among the native nomads. The suggestions of the governor to the Ministry show a clear comprehension of the situation and its needs. Among other desiderata he wished the lands to be studied so that the most successful methods of working them might be developed; he also wished lands, assigned by choice or lot to Italians, individual or in common, to be guaranteed against the evils of speculation. Anticipations of money without interest, a regulated water supply, paternal care of Italian settlers, including religious and medical attention-these were among the suggestions of the governor and many of them were promptly adopted.

By 1894 the Eritrean administration was autonomous and the management of its finances independent. The Imperial government was represented only by the civil governor and three counsellors, all royally appointed. Military and naval commanders were, of course, under direction from the Italian Ministry.1

1 Brunialti, l. c., 472 ff; 480-4; Statesman's Year Book, 1894, etc.

Considering the ground she had to work on, Italy had certainly made a creditable showing. But it must not be imagined that this liberal administration cost nothing; deficits appear annually in the colonial budget and the lower ones of prosperous years are unable to keep down a very high average when the whole period of colonial possession is considered. There have been repeated struggles to reduce the yearly expenses of the colony to 9,000,000 or 8,000,000 lire; no such scheme seems to have succeeded. The deficit has averaged considerably more than this figure; during the whole period of colonial expansion up to 1896, losses are estimated by Brunialti as 10,000 men and 500,000,000 lire.1 For a country whose debt was in the thousand millions, who, out of every hundred lire expended, paid thirty-three lire interest on debt and thirty-three lire for the maintenance of army and navy, this colonial policy was certainly what one of its opponents called it, une politique de luxe. For a rich nation to expend great sums in the work of civilization or extermination may be wastefulness; for a povertystricken, debt-burdened nation, full of internal strife and uproar, it is almost suicide. If the disaster inflicted by Menelik has taught this lesson, perhaps the experience was not too dearly bought.

"Megalomania," however, is not yet cured; the incident of San Mun Bay, where Italy thought of taking another useless burden upon her shoulders, in order to prove herself a Great Power, is almost a happening of the present. In this case, how

11. c., 519; it is elsewhere stated that about 125,000,000 lire were spent in the military operations of 1895-6. The budget for 1895-6 is given as: Receipts: from colonies, 1,700,000; from state, 10,000,000. Expenses: colonial troops, 9,351,000; other expenses, 2,349,000 lire. It is difficult to get exact information on these particulars, but the above figures show general conditions. Even with elimination of the heavy military expense, the colony is far from paying its own way. See Statesman's Year Book and Almanach de Gotha, 1897, etc.; Appleton's Annual Cyc., 1898.

The Financial Condition of Italy, Nation, Oct. 1, 1891 (53; 255); Italy of To-day, by "An Observer," Fortnightly Rev. 61, 225 (1894); The Italian Awakening, by "Ouida," Fortnightly Rev. 65, 541 (1896); F. H. Geffcken, Economic Condition of Italy, Contemporary Rev. 58, 609 (1890); Adolfo Rossi, 1. c.

See C. Lombroso, L'Italia in China, Nuova Antologia, March 16, 1899, as well as various other articles and editorial comment in the earlier issues of 1899.