for a university. Similar institutions are desired by the Indians in the Sikh states, in Cochin and Travonare. About the same time as the Mysore University was opened, the Indian Women's University began its work at Poona. Instruction is given in Marathi, with English as second language, and compulsory courses in domestic science. Besides the generous sums given for such colleges, recently large amounts have been donated by Indians to Calcutta University, to the Institute of Science at Bangalore, and elsewhere.

Since 1900 the public outlay for education trebled, amounting to £7,388,000 in 1915-16. In the same period, the number of schools rose from 148,000 to 189,000, and of pupils from 4,500,000 to 7,620,000, the girls showing a large increase. According to the census of India in 1910, 93.8 per cent of the population of British India were illiterate. The ruler of Baroda has made education free and compulsory and his example has been imitated by the Indian rulers of four states, with others to follow in due course. Consult Pandya, T. R., A Study of Education in Baroda (India 1916); Education Supplement, London Times, 2 Jan. 1912, 7 March 1915; Progress of Education in India,; Quinquennial Review (Calcutta Government Printing Office) 1881-82, et seq.; London_Contemporary Review, January 1918. INDIA, Education.

INDIA, Farther, or Further. See INDOCHINA.

INDIA, French. See EAST INDIA COMPANIES, and INDIA under History.

INDIA, Languages and Literature of. Although it is generally stated that more than a thousand languages are being spoken in India, and that the country is practically a babel of tongues, the principal vehicles of thought are less than 10. The languages now spoken in India are principally the dialects founded upon the corrupt Sanskrit, which is the parent of the Indo-European family of languages, and which has been a dead language for more than 25 centuries. Sanskrit bears the same relation to the Indian languages as Latin to modern European, with, however, certain important modifications. While Latin has furnished the roots and, to a certain extent, the grammar, Sanskrit in India to-day, is considered part and parcel of the spoken languages. Every word in Sanskrit can legitimately be used in any language, and the grammar is exclusive Sanskrit, except in southern India. Tamil, which is the language of southern India, is considered as an independent language spoken by the people whom the Aryans conquered; it has certain peculiarities, and a grammar which differs from the Sanskrit_grammar. The conquest of the Aryans has been so complete as to metamorphose even Tamil and make it, for all practical purposes, a dialect of Sanskrit. The origin of the Indian languages must be directly attributed to Prakrit. Even in the time of Alexander the Great, Sanskrit had been superceded by Prakrit, which is the dialect of Sanskrit. This dialect took local color, as it were, in the different places and new languages were evolved. Besides the influence of Sanskrit, the incursion into India of vast foreign hordes left a very marked trace on the languages. Persian and Arabic, which were the languages of the Mo

hammedan conquerors, brought a large number of words and exercised an influence on literature.

The principal languages spoken in India may be divided into three distinct groups. The northern-Indian languages are the Hindi, spoken by 98,000,000 people; Bengali, spoken by 48,500,000; Punjabi, spoken by 16,000,000; and Rajasthani and Kashmiri, spoken by 10,000,000. Hindi is the language closest to the Prakrit and is spoken by as large a population as that of the United States. It is very rich in poetic literature and is growing in influence. Bengali is the language of Bengal, and next to Hindi has the closest affiliation with Prakrit. Up to a certain time, it was purely a spoken language, but during the last half-century, a great mass of literature has been built upsome of the works being recognized as the peers of the best in the world. The Punjabi, Rajasthani and Kashmari languages are, at present, more or less spoken languages and have yet to develop a literature. Punjabi has a great mixture of Persian and Arabic. Besides these languages, Hindustani or Urdu is spoken throughout northern India. This language is principally Hindi, mixed with Persian and Arabic and was the language of the Mohammedan conquerors - which is still favored by the British government because of its remaining the lingue Franca, in spite of the growth of English. The percentage of Persian and Arabic words in Hindustan is less than five, and for purposes of classification, it may be identified with Hindi. The central-Indian languages are the Marathi, spoken by 20,000,000 people; Gujarati, by 11,000,000; and Oriya, spoken by 10,000,000. Although both northern and southern languages are spoken in central India, the above three are distinctive. Marathi has the closest relation to Sanskrit next to Hindi, and Oriya has a great number of aboriginal words and extraneous influences. The southern-Indian languages are the Telegu, spoken by 23,500,000 people; Tamil, spoken by 18,000,000; Kanarese, spoken by 10,500,000 people; and Malayalam, spoken by 6,500,000 people. These four languages form a distinct group, in that, although dominated by Sanskritic influences, they have a non-Sanskritic base. Besides these principal tongues, there are a number of subsidiary languages like the Assamese, Shan, Sindhi and Pushtu, spoken by small bodies of people.

The golden age of Indian literature has, unfortunately been in the past, but all literature was then in Sanskrit. Up to the Renaissance in Europe, Latin was considered the only fit medium for literature; all the spoken languages were considered just mere mediums for ordinary communication. A similar sentiment prevailed in India, and even up to very recent times, Sanskrit was used by the learned to express their thoughts. Just as literature was practically confined to religion and philosophy up to the Renaissance, so Indian literature, up to recent times, has been mainly religious and philosophic. Long anterior to the rise of Buddhism in India, there was a great mass of secular literature. Dramatists like Kalidasa flourished during that period. Later on, the country was degenerating, until it became an easy prey to the Mohammedan conquest.

Beginning with the later years of the Moghuel rule, the Indian vernaculars began to be used as vehicles of thought, principally for religious and devotional purposes. Kabir-Das and Tulsi-Das were the pioneers in northern India, in making the vernacular respected as a literary language. Owing to the internecine strifes and the several wars which raged in the country for 200 years, until India came completely under British rule, there was no room for developments, and for all practical purposes, the hands of the clock were turned back. Only after the consolidation of the British Empire in India, the people began to see the possibilities of the development of the languages of their home. Indian society is so constituted that all attention was paid, and importance attached, to Sanskrit, as the language of their faith. The Brahmins, who have remained for over 30 years the custodians of the faith and literature of India, naturally had a much more than sentimental attachment to Sanskrit. It has been the practice to consider the spoken languages as corruptions and languages of convenience. The other classes of people simply follow in the wake of the Brahmin. Therefore, except on a few occasions, when the vernaculars revolted, as it were, against Sanskrit, no effort at all was made to improve them. The Brahmin, again, was fighting for his supremacy in the country. Any attack on Sanskrit he considered an attack on himself. Without meaning it, he has been the cause of the stagnation in the literary life of India. With the advent of British rule and long anterior to it, the Brahminical class was not purely sacerdotal. It devoted its attention to mundane pursuits and fought with other classes in the country for the amenities of life. Gradually it was devoting less and less attention to the study of Sanskrit. In the early decades of the 19th century, a very large percentage of the Brahmins all over the country were ignorant of Sanskrit. Instead of holding that the use of language of the home and intercourse in business as a vehicle of literary thought was something beneath their dignity, the Brahmins began to take real interest in the vernaculars. It has been the practice in India, that as soon as the Brahminical class takes interest in anything, the other classes are urged to pay attention to it. When a common interest was thus created, the rise and improvement of vernacular literature became just a matter of course.

It is not to be understood that during all the centuries intervening, there was no literature at all in the vernaculars. Sporadic attempts were made to create literatures, although the sum total of the efforts were very few works worthy of note, and most of them religious and devotional. The few that remain became, however, the classics; and the first successful effort was made in Bengal. Bengal was completely ruled by the British, while constant fighting was going on in other parts of the country. Moreover, the impact of Western civilization was greater in Bengal than in other parts of India. The reform movements, social and political, originated in that province, and the vernaculars were more freely used than before. The great reformer, Ram Mohun Roy, who was the founder of the new cult known as the Brahmo-Samaj, used the Bengali to disseminate his doctrines.

An event of great importance in the history

of literature in India was the passing of the Education Act. When Lord Macaulay was fighting for the introduction of the English language, as a medium of education in the country, he did not for a moment imagine that the result would be what has happened to-day. H. H. Wilson, the great Sanskrit scholar, was all for Sanskrit as the medium of education; and his argument was sound in that he believed that such a step would be in accordance with tradition. The British government was, however, concerned with the supply of sufficient clerical aid to carry on the work of administration, and decided in favor of Lord Macaulay's proposal. For a time, the people of India, in their eagerness to assimilate the new knowledge, paid little or no attention to either Sanskrit or the vernaculars. When, however, education was advanced sufficiently to make the new scholars judges of the relative merits of English literature and their own ancient literatures, they found that they had been extraordinarily foolish in neglecting what they were entitled to call their own. The complete subjection and the improvement in the facilities of communication brought the different peoples in close touch with each other and made them feel that they had a common heritage which they were selling for a mess of pottage. A new nationalistic spirit began to prevail in the country and efforts were directed toward finding expression for such spirit. Sanskrit was unknown to a great mass of the people, and English was only known to a very small minority. Therefore, the only medium for expression, which could be at all effective, was rightly considered to be the vernaculars. The regeneration of the country had to be effected by the dissemination of as much of Western thought as possible. The leaders also found that they must work on the new lines, if there was to be any salvation for the country. The result was a flood of literature in the different vernacular languages, and credit should be given to Bengal for initiating the movement. The men and women, who were in the front of the movement, had a genuine English scholarship, and hence were able to give the people something which was novel. The chief writers of Bengal were Iswara Chandra Vidyasagar, Madhusudan Dutt and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. Vidyasagar was father of Bengali prose. Previous to his advent, there were no prose works of any length or merit in the whole of that province. He was a great reformer and flooded the country with literature of the rarest kind, which had an electrifying effect on the population. Few thought that_the_language could possess such prose works. Dutt was as unfortunate in life as Edgar Allen Poe, and his career was a romance of misery. He studied for the bar in England and had published some poems. They were considered by English critics as considerably above the average. Having been converted to Christianity when he was a youth, he was shunned by both the Hindoo and European communities. After a long period of domestic and financial unhappiness, he turned back to his old faith as a solace and began to write poems in his native tongue. When they appeared in print, Bengal was loathe to ascribe them to any modern writer and thought that it was the work of a genius or of an ancient sage. It is the irony of Fate that Madhusudan, the Christian, should

the

nave given the first rendition of Ramayana, in his native tongue. His work is a classic, and will remain a classic. Chatterjee was a government official and a sincere patriot. The two cannot go together in a country like India. He was fired by the enthusiasm of a visionary, and was anxious to do something great. He wrote the first novels in the Bengali language, and he took for his guide Sir Walter Scott. He made the episodes of the fights for freedom, which his people waged against the inrushing hordes of Mohammedans, live. His descriptions and characterizations are almost unique, and such European writers as have studied his works in the original are unstinting in their praise. It is a curious fact, that a battle hymn from his "Durgesanandini," called "Bande Mataram," meaning, "Hail Motherland" has become the national song of India to-day. Thousands of men and women have been prosecuted and sentenced by the government, during the past few years, for just crying, "Bande Mataram." After these pioncers, followed a host of young writers who have distinguished themselves in many ways; but latterly the political ferment in the country has led to greater attention being paid to newspaper work, rather than good literature. The two most famous writers of recent periods are, Romesh Chunder Dutt and Rabindranath Tagore. Dutt was a member of the Indian Civil Service, who occupied the highest position available for an Indian, under the British government. His work was mainly political, but his writings are considered good literature. Rabindranath Tagore has had international fame on account of his being awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913.

There have been numerous writers in Hindi, Punjabhi, Gujarati and Marathi among northern Indian languages; but few have had an international reputation, with the exception of the late Behramji Malabari and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Mr. Tilak has been more in the limelight as a politician, and will be remembered by his people as a master of Marathi prose. The activity, however, in these languages has been not even a small fraction of that in Bengali, and for various reasons has been frittered away in journalism. The vernacular journalism in Bombay is much more powerful and more modern than similar journalism in other parts of India.

The most interesting of the Indian languages is Tamil, which is the language of the southern half of Madras. It is closely affiliated with the three other languages spoken in the presidency, and being the language of the provincial metropolis is more influential than the rest. This lan guage claims to be nearly as old as Sanskrit. It has a distinctive grammar, an alphabet which is found in no other language in the world, and a tradition which is older than that of any other modern Indian language. There is no doubt that the original Tamils were the inhabitants of the country, prior to the conquest by the Aryans. To-day, in spite of the fact of 25 centuries of intermingling, we find traces of people who are as distinct from the Aryans, as the negroes are from the white Americans. Culture and literature, however, is not in the hands of the original inhabitants. The language has, as it were, been taken up by the Aryans and remodeled. Although there are works which are undeniably known to be 15 to 16

centuries old, we have as yet no trace of Tamil literature without the influence and admixture of Sanskrit. The earliest works show Buddhistic influence. Evidently, Buddhism lasted longer in the south, than in the north, before it was driven out or incorporated into Brahminism. A fairly large number of classics of an early era is available in this language. Kural, Manimehalai and Silappathiharam are said to have existed anterior to the 8th century. Kambaramayanam, Naladiyar and Bharatam are at least 400 years old. Southern India was disturbed by the Mohammedan invasion only late in the day; and even after the Mohammedans came down south, life and literature were less molested than in the north. Since the British admistration, the same influences that have led to a Renaissance in Bengal, have also exerted a powerful influence in connection with Tamil. A number of young writers have produced works which can compare favorably with those of Europe and America.

A treatment of Indian literature will be very incomplete if sufficient attention is not paid to the press. The vernacular press in India is growing powerful every day, and as a rule contains much that is usually published in book form in Europe and the United States. The reason is obvious. The people, as a whole, are too poor to spend a great deal on books, and there is no regular market for literature, especially as the government places every obstacle in the path of the development of indigenous thought and writing. The papers published in the native languages in India are watched very carefully, and are the only means of support for those who choose a literary career. Therefore, they are on a much higher plane than the greater part of newspapers in any part of the world. There is, again, the satisfaction of making innovations and many of the subjects that are daily being discussed have never been treated in any manner in the past. These papers have a much wider circulation than their subscription lists disclose. Owing to the extraordinary apathy of the authorities in educating the people, and the very low percentage of liter ate people, the newspapers are usually read to the people. In a village, for instance, about 20 or 30 people will club together to buy a number of papers, and pay one man to read it to them. Just as people discuss affairs in the clubs of Europe and the United States, world politics is read and discussed in the village temple or the grove. In 1912, Bombay had 359 papers: Madras and the nearby states 256; Bengal, 258; the United Provinces, 223; and Punjab, 211,-all told 1,447 papers and magazines in the country. It is certainly a ridicu lously low number for the extent of the country, but considering that it is an innovation, and that the vernacular press is fettered with all sorts of restrictions by the government, and the writers live in constant dread of being marched to jail any moment, it is indeed a matter for surprise, that so many should exist at all. Consult Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India' (Calcutta 1903 et seq.); Schmidt, P., 'Grundzüge einer Lautlehre der Mon-Khmer Sprachen' (Vienna 1906).

SRINIVAS R. WAGEL.

INDIA, Music of. Music was a science in India long before it was considered so in other

'countries and the Hindu Scriptures are the first in recorded history to mention music as a science. The Rig Veda mentions musical instruments like the drum, the lute and the flute. The Sama Veda, as it was chanted in those ancient days, and as it is chanted even to-day, most conclusively proves that the science of vocal music was developed to a considerable extent. In ancient India the function of music was to assist in the performance of religious ceremonies. Even to-day most of the daily devotional duties of the Hindu are performed in chant or in rhythmical movements of the body. Strabo admits that the greater part of the science of Greek music owes its origin to India. The system of notation, which was perfected in India before 350 B.C., "passed through the Persians to Arabia and was from there introduced into European music by Guido d'Arrezzo at the beginning of the 11th century," states Montstuart Elphinstone, the English historian of India.

Hindu music is divided into seven chapters as follows: (1) Sur-Adhya treats of tones, semi-tones, etc.; (2)_Rag-Adhya treats of tunes and melodies; (3) Taal-Adhya treats of time; (4) Ast-Adhya treats of musical instruments; (5) Nirt-Adhya treats of dancing; (6) BhaoAdhya treats of actions and movements in rhythm with singing and dancing, and (7) Arth-Adhya treats of comprehension of tunes and times.

The scale of Hindu music has seven notes, just like Western music. They are Sa (shudja) which corresponds to the European note C; Ri (Rishaba) to D; Ga (Gandhara) to E; Ma (Madhyama) to F; Pa (Panchama) to G; Dha (Dhaivata) to A, and Ni (Nishada) to B. Each of these notes is considered to be presided over by a deity of the Hindu pantheon: Agni (god of fire), presides over Sa; Brahma (god of creation), over Ri; Saraswati (goddess of learning),__over Ga; Mahadeva over Ma; Vishnu over Pa; Ganesh over Dha, and Surya over Ni.

Instead of the 12 tones and semi-tones of the European scale, the octave of Hindu music is divided into 22 quarter tones and thirds of a tone. That is the main reason why unaccustomed Western ears cannot, at first, appreciate Hindu music. It is so delicate that it does not sound like music at all; it sounds rather like a jumble of notes without the least æsthetic significance. "But," says a European critic, "the Hindu music has attained a theoretical precision yet unknown to Europe.»

From the scale of 22 notes and quarternotes the Hindu divides certain groups into Ragas. There are six Ragas, one for each season of the year. Sri Raga is for the winter, Vasanta for the spring, Bhairava for the summer, Megh for the rainy season, and Natanarayan for late autumn. The six Ragas are male, and there are 36 Raginis.

The Hindu masters of music have set aside different Ragas for different hours of the day. And it is improper to sing a song that is not suited to that hour of the day. As for example, Bhairava is sung from 4 A.M. to 8 A.M.; Megh from 12 noon to 4 P.M.; Dipak from 8 P.M. to midnight.

Again, the atmospheric conditions also go to decide on the Raga to be sung. When it rains

the Hindu sings the Megh-Makar, and it makes you feel wet and hear the gentle raindrops fall. Near a fire or in an exceedingly hot hour of the day he would sing Dipak, a Raga that would make you feel a kind of burning sensation. According to Prof. Inayat Khan there are 400 main ryhthms in Hindu music.

Before singing the song itself the Hindu musician sings Alap. Alap is a kind of prelude to the song. There are no words to an Alap. It simply prepares the ground and creates an atmosphere for the ensuing song. Then, when the singer begins to sing, he is free to improvise as he wishes. He must, of course, conform to the general rule of the Raga, but he improvises according to the mood and the environment he is in, and the audience he is singing for. The master musician does not care much for the words of the song. He often sings one line, and then improvises it in a hundred different ways by repeating the same line a hundred different times. "Music," says Rabindranath Tagore, the Hindu poet and musician, "is not dependent on words. It is majestically grand in its own glory. What words fail to convey to human mind, music does with perfect ease. Music begins when words end." This is certainly the spirit of Hindu music.

Unlike the music of the West, Hindu music is purely melodic. And yet the use of such words as Vadi (principal note), Samavadi (note subordinate to it) and Vivadi (discordant) in the Vedas plainly show that at least some of the rudimentary rules of harmony were understood by the musicians of the Vedic age. But it must be admitted, however, that Hindu music is essentially melodic. In other words, it is produced by successive sounding of single tones of different pitch, whereas the Western harmonic music is produced by the simultaneous sounding of single tones of different pitch. The melodic nature of Hindu music helps to lend itself easily to improvisation.

There are a thousand and one different kinds of musical instruments in India. For full particulars of which the reader should refer to the works of Raja Sourindra Mohon Tagore, and for a fuller account of Hindu music the reader must consult The Music of Hindusthan' by H. H, Fox-Strangways and 'The Introduction to the Study of Indian Music' by E. Clements.

INDIA, Native States of. See INDIA under Political Divisions, Local Government and History.

INDIA, Portuguese. See EAST INDIA COMPANIES, and INDIA under History.

INDIA INK, a black pigment, consisting commonly of lampblack, gelatine and water. The usual basis of India ink is a finely divided solid carbon, mixed with a size to hold it in suspension when the ink is prepared for use by mixing it with water, the depth of the shade being regulated by the quantity of water used in the mixing. This ink was originally made in China and Japan, where the ink is applied with a brush both for writing and drawing. In Europe and America it is now used chiefly for black-and-white drawings.

INDIA RUBBER, a colloidal substance obtained from the milky juice of several widely different plants, and otherwise known

as

caoutchouc or gum-elastic. The most important sources are: Hevea Braziliensis and Castilloa elastica, two trees native to South America but cultivated in many other sections; Manihot Glaziovii, Ficus elastica, several vines of genus Landolphia, and the Mexican guayule plant, Parthenium argentatum. Some of the properties of india rubber must have been known to the natives of America at a very early period, because balls made by the Haytians of the gum of a tree, bouncing better than the wind-balls of Castile, are mentioned by Herrera in his account of Columbus' second voyage. In a book published in 1615, Juan de Torquemada mentions the tree which yields it in Mexico, describes the mode of collecting the gum and states that it is made into shoes; also that the Spaniards use it for waxing their canvas cloaks to make them resist water. More exact information was furnished by M. de la Condamine in 1735. India rubber was at first known as Elastic Gum, and received its present name from the discovery (about 1770) of its use for rubbing out black-lead pencil marks, for which purpose it began to be imported into Britain in small quantities about the end of the 18th century. Its application to the manufacture of waterproof cloth first gave it commercial importance. About the same time a method was discovered of fabricating articles of various kinds by casting india rubber in molds. Until very recent years the india rubber of commerce was obtained chiefly from South America, but the larger part of the present market supply comes from the cultivated rubber plantations of British India and the Indian Archipelago, and a considerable and increasing quantity from the west coast of Africa and the Mauritius.

The sap as gathered from the rubber-yielding plants holds in suspension the globules of rubber, each being surrounded by a protective envelope of a proteid substance. In order to secure the coalescence, of these globules, various methods are employed in different localities and with different rubbers. The most common process is by exposing thin layers of sap to the heat and smoke of an open fire, but a method of chemical coagulation is employed in some localities following a condensation by a centrifugal treatment of the fresh sap. As it reaches the market, crude rubber is a very uncertain substance, containing from 15 to 50 per cent of impurities, much of which is simply dirt, as sand, bits of wood and clothing, leaves, plant fibres, etc. Other impurities which are normal to the sap are resins, sugars of several kinds, albumen, essential oils and a percentage of water, often very considerable. On some plantations of cultivated rubber the gum is carefully cleaned and washed before it is marketed, but generally the manufacturer's first operation is to wash the crude material. The lumps of raw rubber are first steeped in warm water until soft and then sliced into thin sections under water and run between deeply corrugated rolls, also under water until they are in thin wavy sheets resembling crepe. They are then dried in the air or in a vacuum chamber, being carefully protected from light which has a tendency to set up injurious chemical changes, especially oxidation. By the vacuum process the drying is completed in an hour and a half; by the air-drying method several days are required. As rubber is hygroscopic, the drying

operation is one demanding skilled attention, for the vulcanizing of the rubber depends very largely upon the content of moisture.

Pure india rubber has the composition C10H16. It is insoluble in water, in the esters, and in the ethers - all of which, however, are readily absorbed by rubber, causing it to swell. The solvents used in the arts are turpentine, dipentine, petroleum spirit, carbon disulphide, benzene and chloroform. The solvent most frequently used is petroleum spirit, on account of its cheapness. As a matter of fact the usual phenomena of solution are not observed with rubber. The gum absorbs the solvent, becoming first a jelly, later assumes a viscous condition, and as more of the solvent is added it finally takes a freely liquid form. India rubber is highly distensible, and this property increases with the increase of temperature. If the degree of heat is carried to 200° F., the distension becomes permanent. Pure rubber is used to but a limited extent in the arts, but for all general purposes it is first vulcanized. Two grades of vulcanized rubber are prepared, one hard and horny in its texture, the other soft and elastic. In the case of the former the caoutchouc is mixed with about one third of its weight of sulphur and heated for several hours, the temperature finally rising to fully 300° F. For the soft kind of vulcanized rubber, on the other hand, a much smaller proportion of sulphur is required.- viz., from 21⁄2 to 10 per cent, and the heat to which it is subjected in the vulcanizing chamber is considerably less. Usually, too, with this latter kind, the articles are made before the rubber is heated. The sulphur is commonly added in the ground state, but sometimes the rubber is treated with some solution containing this element, such as the bisulphide of carbon.

Hard vulcanized rubber, termed vulcanite, and sometimes ebonite, is made into a great many small articles, such as combs, chains, bracelets, boxes, penholders, paper-knives, knife-handles, buttons, etc., as a substitute for materials like horn, bone, ivory and jet. Like thėse substances themselves, it is formed into various objects by molding, cutting, carving, polishing and other processes. Vast numbers of these articles are now sold. The black color of vulcanite ornaments has still a tendency to turn gray, but the brittleness which was a fault of combs made of it a few years ago has been overcome.

Manufactures from india rubber turned out from the factories of the United States in 1914 amounted to a value of $300,994,000. Of this total a value of $53,822,000 was in the form of boots and shoes. So great is the demand for india rubber, for use in manufacturing, that not only has the importation grown from 2,000,000 pounds in 1862 to over 200,000,000 pounds annually at the present period, but in addition to this the forests of the East Indies are called upon for several million pounds annually of a substitute for gutta-percha, known as "guttajoolatong," while at the same time the highways and byways of Europe and other countries are ransacked for cast-off rubber manufactures from which the rubber is "reclaimed" and re-used in conjunction with the new rubber from the forests of Brazil, Africa and the East Indies.

The industry of importing and "reclaiming" india rubber for re-use in manufacturing is a