officers hold a four-year term of office. The administrative department is in the hands of the mayor and the boards and officials appointed by him. The city council consists of nine members, one being elected from each of the six councilmanic districts, and three at large. The council is composed of six members representing the party in power and three members of the next largest political party. The city clerk and police judge also are elected for four-year terms. The mayor's appointees are the corporation counsel, the city controller, the chief of police, the fire chief, three members of the board of public works, the three members of the board of public safety, the four members of the board of park commissioners, and four members of the city board of health. Other city officials, serving in departments subsidiary to those set forth above, are appointed by the mayor through the boards having the supervision of these departments. The board of school commissioners consists of five members elected by popular vote. The board is non-partisan, women being eligible to membership. The affairs of the school city are separate from those of the municipality proper, the board having control over its finances, which are provided by special tax levies under State law. Notable improvements in methods of municipal administration are in progress, as a result of a survey and recommendations of the New York Bureau of Municipal Research, made under the direction of the Chamber of Commerce in 1917 and the establishment by the Chamber of a Municipal Bureau in 1918.

Population. Beginning with two or three families in 1819 or 1820, Indianapolis has shown a steady and rapid growth, having a population of 1,085 in 1830; 2,698 in 1840; 8,091 in 1850; 18,611 in 1860; 48,244 in 1870; 75,056 in 1880; 105,436 in 1890; and 169,164 in 1900. Since 1900 the increase in population has been still more rapid, the census of 1910 showing a population of 233,650, making an increase of 38.1 per cent over the figures given in the last official enumeration. The population in 1916 was estimated as 285,000; in 1918 at more than 300,000. In 1890 Indianapolis was 26th in population, and in 1910 it was 22d in the United States.

History. The first settler, George Pogue, arrived in March of 1819 or 1820. The legislature of Indiana, meeting at Corydon, by committee selected, in 1820, the site for a State capital, and named it Indianapolis, 6 Jan. 1821. Another committee laid out the plat. Lots were slowly sold for several years, and the government was actually removed to the new capital in 1824, the first session of the legislature being held there in 1825. The first State House, modeled after the Parthenon, was completed in 1835. A town government was instituted in 1832 under three trustees, a town council was established in 1838, and a city government under mayor and council in 1847. The present metropolitan form of government, with the mayor as the responsible administrative officer and the council as the legislative branch, was adopted in 1891. A volunteer fire department was formed in 1826, which had much help from the State when the capitol building was completed. The first fire chief was appointed in 1853, and the department was changed to a corps of paid men in 1859. The police depart

ment was first established in 1854. The new town began to support a newspaper in January 1822, and a church in 1823. The first railroad reached the city in 1847, and several others were completed in the next four years. Their effect upon the town is seen in the large increase in population. The State capital was the centre of great activity during the War, and there was great expansion in business and manufactures as well as increase in population, most of which was retained. The city did its full share in raising regiments for the War, and is said to have expended a million dollars in contributions, bounties, and war expenses. Camp Morton, on its outskirts, was first a camp for training soldiers, and later for prisoners of war. The free school system now cited as a model by educational experts, was begun in 1853 with the accumulations of sev eral years of special taxation spent in buildings and grounds. The Citizens' Street Railway charter was granted 18 Jan. 1864. The slaughtering and packing business, now so large a factor in the city's trade, began its great expansion in the same year. Public improvements were but few in number until the adoption of the new charter in 1891.

Indianapolis has numbered among her prominent citizens Benjamin Harrison, Thomas A. Hendricks, Charles W. Fairbanks, Thomas R. Marshall and others high in the affairs of the government.

WILLIAM FORTUNE, President Indianapolis Chamber of Commerce.

INDIANOLA, Iowa, city and county-seat of Warren County, 18 miles south of Des Moines, on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific railroads. A large and increasing trade in grain, butter, eggs, fruit, live stock and garden products is carried on. The Simpson Methodist Episcopal College was established here in 1867. The electric light plant and waterworks are owned by the city. Pop. 3,500.

INDIANS, American. Columbus, when he discovered America, believed he had reached a part of Asia or of India, and in a letter of February 1493 wrote of "the Indians (in Spanish, Indios) I have with me." Thus the abo

«Indians" (French Indiens, German Indianer, rigines of the New World came to be called etc.), or, to avoid confusion with the natives of India, "American Indians," for which rather cumbrous term the word "Amerinds," susceptible of many modifications by means of prefix and suffix, and easily adaptable to the exigencies of modern. European and other civilized languages, has been suggested by an eminent American lexicographer and is used more or less by a number of anthropologists and other writers. The word "American," originally applied to the Indians, is still somewhat in use, and Dr. D. G. Brinton styled his comprehensive sketch published in 1891, The American Race'; but its employment to designate the white population of the continent seems to bar its ethnological application to the aborigines without some qualifying term. By some writers the Indians are called the "Red Race," and, more popularly, "Redskins" (in French Peaux-Rouges, in German Rothäute), or "Redmen," terms of no exact somatic significance. A few American

and many European ethnologists continue to separate the peoples who created the civilizations of Mexico, Central America, Peru, etc., from the Indians, while others, exclude the Eskimo, and others, again, the "Mound-Builders." But somatic, cultural and linguistic evidence justifies the conclusions of Powell and Brinton in using the term "American Indians" to include not only the aborigines now existing, or known to have existed since the discovery, but also all the pre-Columbian peoples of America concerning whom we have little data-the most divergent are no more than sub-varieties of American man. This unity is the great ethnic phenomenon of American aboriginal history. The study of Indian languages, archæological remains, arts and industries, games, social and religious institutions, mythology and folk-lore indicates a general psychic unity, while the somatic diversities do not transcend those observable in the other great races of mankind. Whether one investigates, as McGee has so admirably done, the Seri of the Gulf of California, who represent about the lowest type of savage culture on the North American continent, or the Mayas of Yucatan, whose approach to a phonetic system of writing touches the high-water mark of Amerindian achievement, one receives the same impression: that it is a question not of very recent civilized or semibarbaric intruders from Asia or from Europe, but of a race (whatever their remoter origins may be) who have dwelt for ages in an American environment, which has shaped them into the peoples met with by the whites at the time of Columbus' discovery. The limited effect of the "discovery" of the Norsemen may be held to discount any "discoveries" by Europeans before them; while, on the other hand, the American-Asiatic contact revealed by the investigations of the Jesup North Pacific expedition is as much American as Asiatic, and the "Bering Sea" culture is a local phenomenon no more fundamentally indigenous to the Old World than to the New. The arguments in favor of a trans-Pacific Malayo-Polynesian influence upon primitive America are no stronger than those that can be adduced to support the contrary opinion. The culture of the "MoundBuilders" does not in any way transcend the possibilities of what the American Indian was and is yet capable of, nor is it necessary to assume the presence of foreign culture-elements to explain the civilization of Mexico, Yucatan, Colombia and Peru. Since very primitive times America has been essentially the "ethnic island of Brinton, Keane and other investigators. The impress of America has been upon the aborigines so long that physically, socially, linguistically they have been "Americanized" in so marked a fashion that their right to be considered one of the "races" of mankind is not to be dismissed without cause. To group them merely as a branch of the Mongolian, or, again, of the Malay "race," is to obscure many points of great importance in the prehistory of America or to ignore them altogether. The American Indian is in too many respects a modified (and anciently so) variety of mankind to be thought of as expressing in any serious degree the type of the Mongolian or the Malay.

Language and Culture. The ethnic isolation of the American race has already been

noticed. The apparent independence of the culture-centres of North and South America is another interesting fact. With the exception of a few possible traces of the presence of tribes of Arawak lineage in ancient Florida and the spread of art-motifs of the Caribbean type over a portion of the adjacent Gulf region, no direct evidence of the influence of South America upon North American culture is forthcoming. The independent origin of Mexican and Peruvian civilizations seems certain, and convincing proofs of the community of origin of Peruvian and Chibchan and even of Mexican and Mayan are lacking. The possibility of inter-cultural relations having once existed is, however, not to be denied. The Pacific coast, from the Gulf of California to the Argentine and Chile, has been a nursery of culture just as the Mediterranean area was for the Eurafrican peoples. There has been a Mexico and a "greater Mexico," a Peru and a "greater Peru," while the Mayas and the Chibchas have also had their extensive spheres of influence. To the Pueblo culture north of Mexico corresponds the Calchaqui culture south of Peru. On the northern borders of Mexico still lie the savage Seri and Yaqui, and the culture areas of Colombia and Peru have also their primitive frontages and this was so in the time of the ancient Montezumas and the Incas. This juxtaposition of civilization and savagery is one of the characteristic facts of American ethnology, as it was once likewise of the history of the Mediterranean area in the Old World. In both areas we meet with a large number of peoples who rose above savagery, but, for some reason or other, failed to develop high stages of culture. That the more material evidences of civilization should be so confined to the Pacific coast is, to some writers, a significant fact suggestive of Asiatic relations; but the intellectual power of such Atlantic peoples as the Iroquois and some of the Muskhogean tribes of North America, and the moderate but distinct progress made by a few of the Brazilian tribes of the Atlantic area relieve us from any such theory, environment and historical incident in America quite sufficing to account for the phenomena involved. (See ETHNOLOGY). Certain other resemblances and contrasts in the various aspects of aboriginal culture in America merit attention here. At the extreme north of the continent, one stock, the Eskimo, with closely related forms of speech, kindred mythology and folklore, similar customs and social institutions, etc., extends in a narrow line from east to west, even overflowing into Asia, while at the extreme south (much less extensive) the Fuegians, numbering altogether less than 10,000, are divided into three distinct linguistic stocks (Yahgans, Onas, Alikulufs). Eastern and northern North America and the corresponding regions in South America are areas of wide distributions of single stock. The Pacific Coast of America, as compared with the Atlantic, is a place where, in diverse spots, languages seem to pullulate. This region (including the narrow limits of Mexico and Central America) contained probably more independent tongues than all the rest of the continent. Indeed, within the present bounds of the State of California alone 22 such tongues are found, with several others in Nevada, and in Prof. Cyrus

Thomas' list of the stocks of Mexico and Central America, made in 1902, nearly 30 are recognized.

The multiplicity of languages in primitive America has called forth explanatory theories of various sorts, among them Horatio Hale's suggestion of the origin of linguistic diversity through the spontaneous language activity of the child. As Gatschet has noted, the very existence of such a multitude of tongues all over America is proof that neither in ancient nor in later times has this continent been the scene, on a vast scale, of the suppression and extermination of peoples one by the other, which have been characteristic features of Old World history. In spite of the common belief to the contrary, mutual destruction was probably never so rife as when the coming of the white man introduced new means of warfare, and, crowding the natives for subsistence, led them to attack each other more effectively. The recent studies of Dixon and Kroeber in California have strengthened the view of a certain parallelism of language and culture.

That some culture-elements, however, have spread from tribe to tribe is shown by the distribution of certain inventions discussed by Mason, the northward movement of such plants as maize, the use of tobacco, the transmission of many themes and incidents of myths and legends (as demonstrated by Boas), the modes of occurrence of certain art-forms, etc. Interminglings of culture of a more or less local, though often of an extensive, character, have taken place in the Bering Sea area, in the Columbia River region, in the habitat of the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, in the southeastern part of the United States, in the Isthmian region of Central America, in Ecuador, in the Pampean country of the Argentine, etc.- larger and more significant intermixtures have, perhaps, taken place in earlier times in Mexico, the Mayan country, Colombia and Peru. A number of the borrowed cultureelements may be explained as the result of trade and commerce, by means of which useful or artistic objects, food, plants, etc., were easily conveyed long distances under primitive conditions. The widespread custom of adoption would also account for not a few instances of alien culture-grafts. So, too, with the exogamic marriage, when the women are culture-bearers. Where language-mixture has taken place it is more or less easily detectable in most American Indian stocks and tongues. When families of the same stock possess, in the one case (Algonkian), dialects which differ as much as Micmac and Blackfoot, in the other (Iroquoian), as much as Cherokee and Mohawk, we are justified in looking for culture-differences as well in such widely separated peoples. Doubtless the results of careful somatological, sociological and other investigations of the various tribes of American aborigines will furnish us ultimately with diverse ways of classifying them. At present, however, the most serviceable classification is a linguistic one, the result of the labors of Major J. W. Powell and the Bureau of American Ethnology, supplemented by the work of Dr. D. G. Brinton.

Linguistic Stocks.-The Bureau of American Ethnology has issued the Powell map showing the extent of the 58 linguistic stocks

47. Jivaroan (Peru, Ecua

dor)

48. Kalapooian (Oregon) 49. Karankawan (Texas) 50. Kechuan or Quechuan (Peru)

51. Keresan (New Mexico, Pueblos)

52. Kiowan (NebraskaWyoming)

53. Kitunahan (S. E. British Columbia, N. Idaho)

54. Koloschan (Alaska) 55. Kulanapan (California) 56. Kusan (Oregon 57. Laman (Peru)

58. Lencan (Central America)

59. Lulean (Gran Chaco) 60. Lutuamian (Oregon) 61. Mainan (Ecuador, N. W. Brazil)

62. Mariposan (California) 63. Matacoan (Gran

Chaco)

64. Matagalpan

(Nicara

gua) 65. Mayan (Yucatan, Chia pas, Guatemala, etc.)

66. Mocoan (Colombia) 67. Moquelumnian (California)

68. Mosateñan (Bolivia) 69. Moviman (Bolivia) 70. Muskhogean (S. E. United States) 71. Natchezan (Louisiana) 72. Onan (Tierra del Fuego)

73. Otomian (Central Mexico)

74. Otomacan (VenezuelaColombia)

75. Palaihnihan

nia)

(Califor

116. Wakashan от Kwakiutl-Nootka (British Columbia) 117. Washoan (NevadaCalifornia)

118. Weitspekan (California) (Califor

119. Wishoskan nia) 120. Xicaquean (Honduras) 121. Xincan (Guatemala) 122. Yahganan (Tierra del Fuego)

123. Yakonan (Oregon) 124. Yanan (California) 125. Yaruran (Venezuela) 126. Yukian (California) 127. Yuman (Lower California, Arizona)

128. Yucan (Peru) 129. Yurucarean (Bolivia) 130. Zaparoan (N. W. Brazil)

131. Zapotecan (S. E. Mexico)

132. Zoquean (S. E. Mexico) 133. Zuñian (New Mexico)

Of the stocks enumerated, 51 belong to South America and 56 to North America north of Mexico. The status of investigation is such that the number assigned to South America is approximate only, and may ultimately be considerably increased or reduced. Some stocks, like the Adaizan, Beothukan (exterminated by whites), Chetimachan, and a few of the minor stocks in South America, are extinct or nearly so. A goodly number - including, for example, many of the stocks on the northwest Pacific Coast, the Texas-Louisiana country, parts of Central America and the Pacific region of South America were or are of limited area; others, like the Eskimoan, Athapascan, Algonkian, Siouan, Shoshonean, Arawakan, Cariban, Tupian, etc., are noteworthy by reason of the extent of their domain. Some, like the Kootenay, consist of practically a single language, while others, like the Algonkian, Siouan, Athapascan, Salishan, Aztecan, Mayan, Arawakan, Tupian, Cariban, etc., have developed numerous dialects, sometimes only remotely resembling the mother tongue. Doubtless, with the perfection of linguistic research, some changes will be made in the list of stocks or perhaps a method of groups may be devised in which stocks showing certain resemblances other than those of a lexical nature may be classed together. The studies of Dixon and Kroeber indicate the possibility of this for the numerous Californian stocks, and a similar result may be predicted for certain other regions of the continent. As said, all the American Indian stocks are far from being of the same significance, many of them having hardly any historical importance. A few words about some of the most typical and most important must suffice here.

North American Stocks.-The Eskimoan stock is noteworthy by reason of being the first of all the aboriginal peoples of America to be visited by representatives of European culture -the Norsemen in the 10th century, etc. It is also the only primitive people who, unaided by civilized races, occupy a portion of both hemispheres, for the Eskimo stretch from Labrador to a considerable distance within the borders of northeastern Asia. They illustrate the victory of man over a difficult environment, for they are a merry and sociable people in spite of the inclement and depressing character of their Arctic surroundings. They have also a marked

sense of humor, as the institution of nithsong, or settlement of disputes by public judgment of the comparative merits of the two parties in competitive singing would indicate the themes of the singing being the dispute and sarcasm at the expense of the opponent. The Eskimo are also very skilful carvers and engravers of ivory, their spirited drawings of animals, etc., resembling in marked fashion the similar art-products of prehistoric man of the French river-drift, a likeness which has induced some authorities (Dawkins, De Mortillet) to assume a racial connection between these two peoples. Mason has recently suggested that these drawings owe a good deal to the contact with Europeans (introduction of iron tools, etc.), but Boas considers that their close resemblance to the bark and rock pictographs of the Indians forbids the conclusion that these drawings are of other than native origin. The unity of language and (to a considerable degree) of custom, mythology, etc., among the various Eskimo tribes is remarkable when one remembers the extent of their distribution. The use of the Eskimo dog with the sledge, the kayak, the harpoon, the snow-house (iglu) and the invention of many mechanical devices, show them to be gifted with native intelligence.

The Athapascan stock is notable for the contrasts in culture and diversities of culturecapacity presented by its members. Some of the Athapascan peoples of northwestern Canada and Alaska are among the lowest types of American man, and a few of them have hardly yet come to knowledge of the white man, the advent of the fur-trader being, according to J. M. Bell, a matter of the last few years in part of their domain. To this stock belong also the Apaches, once the terror of the civilization of the Southwest, whose depredations, in earlier times, disturbed the peace of the native civilization of Old Mexico. It is fair to say, however, of them that individual Apaches (Dr. Montezuma, for example) show good capacity for adopting the chief elements of white American culture. Several small tribes of Athapascans are scattered through Washington, Oregon and California, the most noteworthy being the Hupa, on Trinity River, the "Romans of California," as they have been called. The Navaho, who have assimilated to a considerable extent the culture of the whites, were good agriculturists before the coming of the Spaniards, from whom they adopted the sheep, a fact which modified their environment and their response to it. The contrast between the rude tribes of the "Barren Grounds" of Canada and the Navaho of New. Mexico and Arizona is, as Horatio Hale pointed out, one of the most remarkable instances of culture-change by process of environmental variation on record. The recent loan-word Klondike comes from an Athapascan dialect.

The Algonkian stock, members of which were found from Labrador to South Carolina, and from the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi northwesterly to the foot of the Rocky Mountains and the borders of the domain of the Athapascans, is of interest for many reasons. The great area over which it is spread has brought members of this stock into contact with many other Indian peoples.the Naskopi, Crees, and northern Ojibwa with the Eskimo; the Micmacs with the Eskimo and